[{"Name":"Cellular Foundation","TopicPlaylistFirstVideoID":0,"Duration":null,"Videos":[{"Watched":false,"Name":"Two Types Of Cells Exist - Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes","Duration":"12m 55s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25679,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":"https://www.proprep.uk/Images/Videos_Thumbnails/25679.jpeg","UploadDate":"2021-07-10T18:41:55.6900000","DurationForVideoObject":"PT12M55S","Description":null,"MetaTitle":"Two Types Of Cells Exist - Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes: Video + Workbook | Proprep","MetaDescription":"The Foundation of Biochemistry - Cellular Foundation. Watch the video made by an expert in the field. Download the workbook and maximize your learning.","Canonical":"https://www.proprep.uk/general-modules/all/biochemistry/the-foundation-of-biochemistry/-cellular-foundation/vid26994","VideoComments":[{"CommentDate":"09:41 06/14/2022","Text":"welcome to merge","CommentStatus":1,"UserID":0,"ChapterTopicPlaylistVideoID":0,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":0,"FirstName":"Elior","LastName":"Tapiro","IP":null,"ID":0}],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.880","Text":"Hi everyone. Welcome to the world of biochemistry."},{"Start":"00:02.880 ","End":"00:05.654","Text":"This video deals with cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:05.654 ","End":"00:08.940","Text":"We will be talking about the 2 types of cells that exist,"},{"Start":"00:08.940 ","End":"00:11.880","Text":"which are prokaryotes and eukaryotes."},{"Start":"00:11.880 ","End":"00:15.465","Text":"This video contains a lot of information and by the end of it,"},{"Start":"00:15.465 ","End":"00:18.975","Text":"you should be able to describe the 2 types of cells in organisms,"},{"Start":"00:18.975 ","End":"00:21.480","Text":"characterize the differences between them,"},{"Start":"00:21.480 ","End":"00:24.450","Text":"and identify the common components of all cells."},{"Start":"00:24.450 ","End":"00:29.910","Text":"Let\u0027s dive in. The foundation of modern living organisms is the cell."},{"Start":"00:29.910 ","End":"00:31.485","Text":"Now, what\u0027s an organism?"},{"Start":"00:31.485 ","End":"00:33.255","Text":"It\u0027s anything that\u0027s alive."},{"Start":"00:33.255 ","End":"00:35.505","Text":"An organism is a living thing."},{"Start":"00:35.505 ","End":"00:38.040","Text":"This can be a unicellular organism,"},{"Start":"00:38.040 ","End":"00:41.750","Text":"an organism that\u0027s made of 1 cell or multicellular organism,"},{"Start":"00:41.750 ","End":"00:44.630","Text":"an organism that\u0027s made of multiple cells."},{"Start":"00:44.630 ","End":"00:47.810","Text":"The cell is the smallest unit of the organism of"},{"Start":"00:47.810 ","End":"00:53.130","Text":"this living thing and organisms are made of cells."},{"Start":"00:53.710 ","End":"00:58.190","Text":"You have a unicellular organism which is made of 1 cell and you have"},{"Start":"00:58.190 ","End":"01:01.940","Text":"a multicellular organism that\u0027s made of many cells."},{"Start":"01:01.940 ","End":"01:04.235","Text":"Now in the case of a multicellular organism,"},{"Start":"01:04.235 ","End":"01:06.245","Text":"like a cow, for example,"},{"Start":"01:06.245 ","End":"01:13.040","Text":"it is made of multiple organs which can be the stomach or intestines, the colon."},{"Start":"01:13.040 ","End":"01:16.880","Text":"I\u0027m sure you can think of many other examples and each organ is made of"},{"Start":"01:16.880 ","End":"01:21.425","Text":"tissues while tissue are made of multiple cells."},{"Start":"01:21.425 ","End":"01:24.230","Text":"Either way, all organisms are made of cells."},{"Start":"01:24.230 ","End":"01:26.930","Text":"The multicellular organisms like the cow that"},{"Start":"01:26.930 ","End":"01:29.795","Text":"are made of organs been turned tissues and turn up cells,"},{"Start":"01:29.795 ","End":"01:33.800","Text":"or the unicellular organisms that are made of a cell."},{"Start":"01:33.800 ","End":"01:37.260","Text":"Now we mentioned the 2 major types of cells,"},{"Start":"01:37.260 ","End":"01:39.125","Text":"the 2 major classifications,"},{"Start":"01:39.125 ","End":"01:42.890","Text":"the eukaryotes and the prokaryotes."},{"Start":"01:42.890 ","End":"01:48.140","Text":"These terms come many terms in biology from the Greek language with"},{"Start":"01:48.140 ","End":"01:54.675","Text":"eu meaning true or good, pro meaning before."},{"Start":"01:54.675 ","End":"01:58.310","Text":"Eu of the eukaryotic is true or good,"},{"Start":"01:58.310 ","End":"02:02.720","Text":"the true cell when we think of cells this is what we think of."},{"Start":"02:02.720 ","End":"02:04.565","Text":"Pro, prokaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"02:04.565 ","End":"02:06.980","Text":"the cells that came before."},{"Start":"02:06.980 ","End":"02:11.845","Text":"Karyon nut or kernel refers to the shape."},{"Start":"02:11.845 ","End":"02:16.145","Text":"You have a eukaryotes and prokaryotes."},{"Start":"02:16.145 ","End":"02:21.880","Text":"Basically, the way you could think of it as the eukaryotes which is the true cell,"},{"Start":"02:21.880 ","End":"02:23.465","Text":"what we think of,"},{"Start":"02:23.465 ","End":"02:26.825","Text":"while the prokaryotic cells and how I like to remember it,"},{"Start":"02:26.825 ","End":"02:32.660","Text":"are thought to have come before the more complex eukaryotic cells."},{"Start":"02:32.660 ","End":"02:35.030","Text":"What do we know about prokaryotes?"},{"Start":"02:35.030 ","End":"02:38.420","Text":"They\u0027re mostly unicellular, single-celled organisms."},{"Start":"02:38.420 ","End":"02:41.945","Text":"Bacteria are an example of prokaryotes."},{"Start":"02:41.945 ","End":"02:45.820","Text":"They are the most prevalent and widespread organisms on Earth."},{"Start":"02:45.820 ","End":"02:49.025","Text":"This is probably due to their adaptability,"},{"Start":"02:49.025 ","End":"02:52.310","Text":"allowing them to grow in a variety of habitats."},{"Start":"02:52.310 ","End":"02:56.090","Text":"For example, there are bacteria that are able to grow and"},{"Start":"02:56.090 ","End":"02:59.780","Text":"thrive in extremely hot environments like lavae,"},{"Start":"02:59.780 ","End":"03:03.890","Text":"meaning they adapted to survive in extreme temperatures."},{"Start":"03:03.890 ","End":"03:09.245","Text":"Or the examples of aerobic versus anaerobic organisms,"},{"Start":"03:09.245 ","End":"03:14.900","Text":"with aerobic meaning where there\u0027s oxygen and anaerobic where there\u0027s lack of oxygen."},{"Start":"03:14.900 ","End":"03:17.935","Text":"There are organisms that are aerobic."},{"Start":"03:17.935 ","End":"03:21.740","Text":"They live and survive in oxygen-rich environments,"},{"Start":"03:21.740 ","End":"03:27.410","Text":"while anaerobic are ones that grow in oxygen-depleted environments."},{"Start":"03:27.410 ","End":"03:31.855","Text":"There are bacteria or prokaryotes that adapt to either."},{"Start":"03:31.855 ","End":"03:39.450","Text":"Now, their size ranges from 0.1-10 micrometers and they have 1 of 3 shapes."},{"Start":"03:39.450 ","End":"03:46.065","Text":"You have the spheroidical or spheres which are termed cocci,"},{"Start":"03:46.065 ","End":"03:51.275","Text":"like streptococcus, the bacteria that you probably have heard of."},{"Start":"03:51.275 ","End":"03:55.490","Text":"We have the rod-like, these elongated ovals,"},{"Start":"03:55.490 ","End":"03:59.135","Text":"these pill-like shaped and these are termed bacilli,"},{"Start":"03:59.135 ","End":"04:04.035","Text":"like bacillus and thoracis the bacteria that caused anthrax."},{"Start":"04:04.035 ","End":"04:06.795","Text":"The third shape is the helically coiled,"},{"Start":"04:06.795 ","End":"04:10.030","Text":"the spirals, the spirilla."},{"Start":"04:10.030 ","End":"04:15.760","Text":"Now I mentioned the micrometer in reference to the size of the prokaryotic cell."},{"Start":"04:15.760 ","End":"04:20.584","Text":"The micrometer here as written both writings are correct."},{"Start":"04:20.584 ","End":"04:22.340","Text":"You have the American-based writing,"},{"Start":"04:22.340 ","End":"04:24.260","Text":"which I think is the most common one,"},{"Start":"04:24.260 ","End":"04:26.480","Text":"and then you have the British-based writing."},{"Start":"04:26.480 ","End":"04:30.620","Text":"This is the scientific shorthand for it as you can see here."},{"Start":"04:30.620 ","End":"04:32.810","Text":"It\u0027s also known as the micron."},{"Start":"04:32.810 ","End":"04:37.735","Text":"Now, this is a unit of length that measures to 1 times"},{"Start":"04:37.735 ","End":"04:45.335","Text":"10^negative 6 times of a meter,"},{"Start":"04:45.335 ","End":"04:47.765","Text":"which means 1 millionth of a meter,"},{"Start":"04:47.765 ","End":"04:50.645","Text":"which means really small."},{"Start":"04:50.645 ","End":"04:53.630","Text":"You can only see it with great magnification,"},{"Start":"04:53.630 ","End":"04:56.180","Text":"with a really strong microscope."},{"Start":"04:56.180 ","End":"04:59.090","Text":"Now the micrometer is commonly used to measure size of"},{"Start":"04:59.090 ","End":"05:02.120","Text":"biological cells and other biological components and"},{"Start":"05:02.120 ","End":"05:08.535","Text":"bacteria as well as for wavelengths of infrared radiation and other scientific sizes."},{"Start":"05:08.535 ","End":"05:12.140","Text":"Now for reference, if you take 1 of your hairs right now and look at it,"},{"Start":"05:12.140 ","End":"05:19.350","Text":"the width of a single human hair ranges from approximately 20-200 micrometers."},{"Start":"05:20.680 ","End":"05:26.405","Text":"Let\u0027s remember the prokaryotic size, 0.1-10 micrometers."},{"Start":"05:26.405 ","End":"05:30.710","Text":"The largest size of the prokaryotic cell range is still half"},{"Start":"05:30.710 ","End":"05:35.270","Text":"of the smallest size of the width of your single human hair."},{"Start":"05:35.270 ","End":"05:37.670","Text":"I think that tells you how tiny it is."},{"Start":"05:37.670 ","End":"05:39.815","Text":"Now let\u0027s talk about our genetic material."},{"Start":"05:39.815 ","End":"05:46.515","Text":"The longest human chromosome is approximately 10 microns in length."},{"Start":"05:46.515 ","End":"05:52.475","Text":"Again, the size of the biggest of the range of the prokaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"05:52.475 ","End":"05:54.980","Text":"and that is our longest human chromosome,"},{"Start":"05:54.980 ","End":"05:59.160","Text":"the longest portion of genetic material that we have."},{"Start":"05:59.260 ","End":"06:01.925","Text":"What else do we know about prokaryotes?"},{"Start":"06:01.925 ","End":"06:07.150","Text":"They have an outer membrane and in some cases it\u0027s surrounded by a protective cell wall."},{"Start":"06:07.150 ","End":"06:10.312","Text":"They mostly lack membrane-bound organelles,"},{"Start":"06:10.312 ","End":"06:14.900","Text":"yet the contents of their cells can be organized or are"},{"Start":"06:14.900 ","End":"06:17.570","Text":"setup where different metabolic functions are"},{"Start":"06:17.570 ","End":"06:20.735","Text":"carried out in different regions of the cytoplasm of the cell."},{"Start":"06:20.735 ","End":"06:23.705","Text":"The cytoplasm is not homogeneous."},{"Start":"06:23.705 ","End":"06:28.810","Text":"You see that there\u0027s some sort of arrangement in prokaryotic cell."},{"Start":"06:28.810 ","End":"06:33.280","Text":"An example of a well-characterized prokaryote is Escheria coli."},{"Start":"06:33.280 ","End":"06:36.788","Text":"It is rod-like shaped as you see in this drawing here,"},{"Start":"06:36.788 ","End":"06:41.305","Text":"it is 2 micrometers by 1 micrometer in size,"},{"Start":"06:41.305 ","End":"06:43.860","Text":"and it inhabits the mammalian colon."},{"Start":"06:43.860 ","End":"06:48.440","Text":"The E coli, the very common bacteria that we hear about,"},{"Start":"06:48.440 ","End":"06:51.710","Text":"is an example of prokaryote."},{"Start":"06:51.710 ","End":"06:55.115","Text":"Now switching over to the eukaryotes,"},{"Start":"06:55.115 ","End":"07:01.160","Text":"these can be multicellular or unicellular and are more complex than the prokaryotes."},{"Start":"07:01.160 ","End":"07:05.810","Text":"They can be an organism that\u0027s 1 cell or an organism that has"},{"Start":"07:05.810 ","End":"07:08.600","Text":"multiple cells and the complexity of"},{"Start":"07:08.600 ","End":"07:11.855","Text":"the cell itself is higher than that of the prokaryotes."},{"Start":"07:11.855 ","End":"07:17.575","Text":"Their sizes range from either 5 or 10-100 micrometers in diameter."},{"Start":"07:17.575 ","End":"07:20.750","Text":"I say 5 or 10 just because in different books,"},{"Start":"07:20.750 ","End":"07:24.740","Text":"in different lectures they state the lower range to be different."},{"Start":"07:24.740 ","End":"07:27.725","Text":"But if we take into the extreme sizes,"},{"Start":"07:27.725 ","End":"07:35.345","Text":"it will be 5-100 microns in diameter and this includes animal and plant cells."},{"Start":"07:35.345 ","End":"07:38.505","Text":"Here I have written 10-100 micrometers."},{"Start":"07:38.505 ","End":"07:43.535","Text":"This means that it\u0027s 10-100 times larger than most bacteria"},{"Start":"07:43.535 ","End":"07:51.370","Text":"and 1,000-1 million times the volume of typical prokaryotes."},{"Start":"07:51.370 ","End":"07:55.490","Text":"Now eukaryotes are characterized by membrane-bound organelles."},{"Start":"07:55.490 ","End":"08:01.160","Text":"As you remember, we mentioned that prokaryotes generally lack membrane-bound organelles."},{"Start":"08:01.160 ","End":"08:03.215","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about some of these organelles."},{"Start":"08:03.215 ","End":"08:05.105","Text":"We have the nucleus,"},{"Start":"08:05.105 ","End":"08:10.070","Text":"which is where our DNA is stored and related functions are carried out."},{"Start":"08:10.070 ","End":"08:15.244","Text":"This is our genetic material and you can see it here."},{"Start":"08:15.244 ","End":"08:19.190","Text":"We have the endoplasmic reticulum, ER for short."},{"Start":"08:19.190 ","End":"08:23.000","Text":"This is a site where many cellular components are synthesized."},{"Start":"08:23.000 ","End":"08:26.885","Text":"There\u0027s the rough and smooth ER and these sequester,"},{"Start":"08:26.885 ","End":"08:32.165","Text":"these trapped ribosomes that are responsible and carry out protein synthesis."},{"Start":"08:32.165 ","End":"08:34.045","Text":"The Golgi apparatus,"},{"Start":"08:34.045 ","End":"08:38.150","Text":"where some of the components that were synthesized in the ER, for example,"},{"Start":"08:38.150 ","End":"08:41.300","Text":"proteins that are synthesized by ribosomes can"},{"Start":"08:41.300 ","End":"08:45.305","Text":"then be modified and this will be done in the Golgi apparatus."},{"Start":"08:45.305 ","End":"08:48.770","Text":"Components that are synthesized in the ER can subsequently"},{"Start":"08:48.770 ","End":"08:52.085","Text":"undergo modification in the Golgi apparatus."},{"Start":"08:52.085 ","End":"08:57.560","Text":"You have the ER and then moves on to the Golgi apparatus where modifications take place."},{"Start":"08:57.560 ","End":"09:02.285","Text":"Then we have the mitochondria where most of the metabolism takes place."},{"Start":"09:02.285 ","End":"09:05.120","Text":"This is basically aerobic metabolism,"},{"Start":"09:05.120 ","End":"09:10.025","Text":"metabolism that utilizes oxygen and these are the mitochondria."},{"Start":"09:10.025 ","End":"09:13.430","Text":"Now there are also photosynthetic cells that contain chloroplasts as"},{"Start":"09:13.430 ","End":"09:17.270","Text":"well and these convert the sun\u0027s energy to chemical energy."},{"Start":"09:17.270 ","End":"09:19.880","Text":"This is generally found in plants."},{"Start":"09:19.880 ","End":"09:21.665","Text":"You also have vacuoles,"},{"Start":"09:21.665 ","End":"09:23.630","Text":"which are storage compartments that are found more"},{"Start":"09:23.630 ","End":"09:25.610","Text":"commonly in plants rather than animals,"},{"Start":"09:25.610 ","End":"09:28.220","Text":"just like the chloroplasts."},{"Start":"09:28.220 ","End":"09:31.625","Text":"The last item I\u0027m going to talk about the last organelle."},{"Start":"09:31.625 ","End":"09:37.640","Text":"This list will be the cytoskeleton with the skeleton hinting as to its function."},{"Start":"09:37.640 ","End":"09:39.935","Text":"As we have in our body the skeleton,"},{"Start":"09:39.935 ","End":"09:41.820","Text":"the bones that hold us together,"},{"Start":"09:41.820 ","End":"09:43.580","Text":"that hold our structure."},{"Start":"09:43.580 ","End":"09:48.395","Text":"The cytoskeleton is an extensive arrangement of filaments that you see here,"},{"Start":"09:48.395 ","End":"09:53.865","Text":"that shape the cell and allow movement in the cell and organize the cytosol."},{"Start":"09:53.865 ","End":"09:59.585","Text":"This is what allows to maintain the shape and structure in the cell."},{"Start":"09:59.585 ","End":"10:03.605","Text":"Now comparing the characteristics of the 2 types of cells,"},{"Start":"10:03.605 ","End":"10:07.066","Text":"of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells."},{"Start":"10:07.066 ","End":"10:10.670","Text":"Prokaryotes grow more rapidly and this is beneficial in"},{"Start":"10:10.670 ","End":"10:14.495","Text":"environments that have fluctuations change the nutrient availability,"},{"Start":"10:14.495 ","End":"10:18.064","Text":"like the stomach or the mouth which we know have bacteria."},{"Start":"10:18.064 ","End":"10:20.150","Text":"Even though if there\u0027s a change,"},{"Start":"10:20.150 ","End":"10:24.440","Text":"a big fluctuation what we have in acidity or the nutrients that we have,"},{"Start":"10:24.440 ","End":"10:26.000","Text":"the bacteria can\u0027t survive,"},{"Start":"10:26.000 ","End":"10:29.270","Text":"the prokaryotes will survive and they are more simple and"},{"Start":"10:29.270 ","End":"10:35.015","Text":"smaller than the eukaryotic cell and can be considered more efficient."},{"Start":"10:35.015 ","End":"10:39.020","Text":"Eukaryotes complexity and larger size results in slower growth"},{"Start":"10:39.020 ","End":"10:42.915","Text":"and an advantage in stable environments with limited resources."},{"Start":"10:42.915 ","End":"10:45.950","Text":"You have different characteristics, different sizes,"},{"Start":"10:45.950 ","End":"10:50.780","Text":"and this affects the growth rate and the adaptability to the different environments."},{"Start":"10:50.780 ","End":"10:56.015","Text":"Both cell types are well adjusted to the respective environments and lifestyles."},{"Start":"10:56.015 ","End":"11:01.415","Text":"Thus, it is inaccurate to consider prokaryotes as evolutionarily primitive."},{"Start":"11:01.415 ","End":"11:05.450","Text":"Otherwise, they most likely would have lost prevalence on Earth over time."},{"Start":"11:05.450 ","End":"11:12.345","Text":"Yet they did come before the eukaryotes and are thus ancestrally more ancient."},{"Start":"11:12.345 ","End":"11:15.500","Text":"It\u0027s even considered and thought that eukaryotes were"},{"Start":"11:15.500 ","End":"11:19.040","Text":"actually formed from prokaryotes that have assembled"},{"Start":"11:19.040 ","End":"11:23.420","Text":"together and basically have possibly a couple of"},{"Start":"11:23.420 ","End":"11:26.420","Text":"prokaryotes that created a symbiotic relationship"},{"Start":"11:26.420 ","End":"11:29.780","Text":"and then evolved into the eukaryotic cell."},{"Start":"11:29.780 ","End":"11:35.825","Text":"Both cell types and actually all cells share 4 common components."},{"Start":"11:35.825 ","End":"11:38.240","Text":"We have the plasma membrane,"},{"Start":"11:38.240 ","End":"11:40.310","Text":"which is the outer covering that separates"},{"Start":"11:40.310 ","End":"11:44.720","Text":"the cell interior from its surrounding environment."},{"Start":"11:44.720 ","End":"11:49.100","Text":"It basically is like the skin that separates the aqueous solution"},{"Start":"11:49.100 ","End":"11:54.425","Text":"that\u0027s inside the cell versus what\u0027s outside the cell."},{"Start":"11:54.425 ","End":"11:56.365","Text":"We then had the DNA."},{"Start":"11:56.365 ","End":"11:59.510","Text":"This is the genetic material of the cell of the organism."},{"Start":"11:59.510 ","End":"12:03.515","Text":"As you could see here in eukaryotic cells within the nucleus."},{"Start":"12:03.515 ","End":"12:07.340","Text":"Here it\u0027s arranged in a certain area within the prokaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"12:07.340 ","End":"12:12.250","Text":"but not membrane-bound separately from the rest of the cell in the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"12:12.250 ","End":"12:14.490","Text":"Next we have the cytosol."},{"Start":"12:14.490 ","End":"12:18.890","Text":"It is the cytoplasm excluding its membrane-bound organelles."},{"Start":"12:18.890 ","End":"12:23.753","Text":"It\u0027s a gel-like substance in which other cell components are located,"},{"Start":"12:23.753 ","End":"12:25.339","Text":"so you have the cytosol."},{"Start":"12:25.339 ","End":"12:28.850","Text":"Then the fourth component is the ribosomes."},{"Start":"12:28.850 ","End":"12:32.150","Text":"Each cell has multiple ribosomes, several ribosomes,"},{"Start":"12:32.150 ","End":"12:36.550","Text":"and these are what synthesized proteins as mentioned before."},{"Start":"12:36.550 ","End":"12:40.865","Text":"At this point, we have described the 2 types of cells in organisms."},{"Start":"12:40.865 ","End":"12:43.760","Text":"We\u0027ve characterized the differences between the 2 cell types,"},{"Start":"12:43.760 ","End":"12:45.740","Text":"the prokaryotes and the eukaryotes."},{"Start":"12:45.740 ","End":"12:48.650","Text":"We identified the common components of all cells."},{"Start":"12:48.650 ","End":"12:54.090","Text":"Now you can test your knowledge with exercises and see you in the next section."}],"ID":26994},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 1","Duration":"3m 50s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25704,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.880","Text":"Hi, all. Welcome to the exercise to test"},{"Start":"00:02.880 ","End":"00:05.850","Text":"our knowledge on what we covered in the cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:05.850 ","End":"00:08.700","Text":"The section that talked about the 2 types of cells that we have,"},{"Start":"00:08.700 ","End":"00:11.865","Text":"the eukaryotes and prokaryotes."},{"Start":"00:11.865 ","End":"00:14.400","Text":"Let\u0027s look at our question."},{"Start":"00:14.400 ","End":"00:16.529","Text":"Given the following statement,"},{"Start":"00:16.529 ","End":"00:19.109","Text":"determine which is false."},{"Start":"00:19.109 ","End":"00:21.960","Text":"Eukaryotes are characterized by,"},{"Start":"00:21.960 ","End":"00:25.545","Text":"a, presence of a nucleus, b,"},{"Start":"00:25.545 ","End":"00:28.890","Text":"presence of membrane-bound organelles, c,"},{"Start":"00:28.890 ","End":"00:30.825","Text":"presence of a cell wall,"},{"Start":"00:30.825 ","End":"00:33.794","Text":"d, presence of the Golgi apparatus."},{"Start":"00:33.794 ","End":"00:35.594","Text":"Let\u0027s look at this question again,"},{"Start":"00:35.594 ","End":"00:38.230","Text":"because there is a key thing that we need to note,"},{"Start":"00:38.230 ","End":"00:40.430","Text":"that can be a little confusing."},{"Start":"00:40.430 ","End":"00:42.290","Text":"Given the following statement,"},{"Start":"00:42.290 ","End":"00:45.245","Text":"determine which one is false."},{"Start":"00:45.245 ","End":"00:48.275","Text":"Eukaryotes are characterized by,"},{"Start":"00:48.275 ","End":"00:50.300","Text":"and we have the 4 options."},{"Start":"00:50.300 ","End":"00:57.410","Text":"We actually want a statement that is not true about the characteristics of eukaryotes."},{"Start":"00:57.410 ","End":"01:03.290","Text":"Let\u0027s start with a. Eukaryotes are characterized by presence of a nucleus."},{"Start":"01:03.290 ","End":"01:04.835","Text":"Well, if you remember,"},{"Start":"01:04.835 ","End":"01:08.509","Text":"we actually mentioned that eukaryotes genetic material,"},{"Start":"01:08.509 ","End":"01:10.955","Text":"the chromosomes, the DNA,"},{"Start":"01:10.955 ","End":"01:15.694","Text":"are actually kept and stored and copied within the nucleus."},{"Start":"01:15.694 ","End":"01:20.840","Text":"The chromosomes are found in the nucleus which is bound within the nuclear membrane."},{"Start":"01:20.840 ","End":"01:24.230","Text":"You have the nucleus in the eukaryotic cell."},{"Start":"01:24.230 ","End":"01:27.065","Text":"This is actually true statement."},{"Start":"01:27.065 ","End":"01:32.410","Text":"Therefore, it does not fall as our correct statement as being false."},{"Start":"01:32.410 ","End":"01:40.535","Text":"Let\u0027s move onto b. Eukaryotes are characterized by presence of membrane-bound organelles."},{"Start":"01:40.535 ","End":"01:45.400","Text":"Another characteristic we mentioned about eukaryotes versus prokaryotes,"},{"Start":"01:45.400 ","End":"01:47.600","Text":"is that they have membrane-bound organelles."},{"Start":"01:47.600 ","End":"01:50.180","Text":"Whereas in prokaryotes, they don\u0027t necessarily"},{"Start":"01:50.180 ","End":"01:53.593","Text":"have organelles that are separated by membranes,"},{"Start":"01:53.593 ","End":"01:58.660","Text":"and it\u0027s just a different orchestration of where things are in the cell,"},{"Start":"01:58.660 ","End":"02:04.280","Text":"but eukaryotes actually have organelles that are bound within membranes."},{"Start":"02:04.280 ","End":"02:07.550","Text":"Therefore, this statement is true for eukaryotes."},{"Start":"02:07.550 ","End":"02:12.275","Text":"Therefore, it is not our correct answer because it is not false."},{"Start":"02:12.275 ","End":"02:16.455","Text":"Once again, b is not the right one."},{"Start":"02:16.455 ","End":"02:22.240","Text":"Let\u0027s go onto c. Eukaryotes are characterized by presence of a cell wall."},{"Start":"02:22.240 ","End":"02:26.630","Text":"What we have in eukaryotes is the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"02:26.630 ","End":"02:29.840","Text":"The plasma membrane is like the skin and it\u0027s what separates"},{"Start":"02:29.840 ","End":"02:33.160","Text":"the inside of the cell from the outside of the cell."},{"Start":"02:33.160 ","End":"02:36.500","Text":"Whereas the cell wall is something completely different,"},{"Start":"02:36.500 ","End":"02:40.790","Text":"and eukaryotes are not characterized by presence of a cell wall."},{"Start":"02:40.790 ","End":"02:44.405","Text":"Therefore, this statement is false."},{"Start":"02:44.405 ","End":"02:46.440","Text":"Let\u0027s move onto d,"},{"Start":"02:46.440 ","End":"02:51.545","Text":"to verify that c is our actual correct answer here."},{"Start":"02:51.545 ","End":"02:56.600","Text":"Eukaryotes are characterized by presence of the Golgi apparatus."},{"Start":"02:56.600 ","End":"02:59.375","Text":"Now if you remember, the Golgi apparatus,"},{"Start":"02:59.375 ","End":"03:02.976","Text":"was one of the membrane-bound organelles that we gave as an example."},{"Start":"03:02.976 ","End":"03:07.849","Text":"The Golgi apparatus is actually where proteins that have been synthesized,"},{"Start":"03:07.849 ","End":"03:11.585","Text":"for example, in the ER, undergo modification."},{"Start":"03:11.585 ","End":"03:14.255","Text":"This statement, once again,"},{"Start":"03:14.255 ","End":"03:17.390","Text":"is true with regard to eukaryotes, therefore,"},{"Start":"03:17.390 ","End":"03:21.545","Text":"it is not the correct answer as being false."},{"Start":"03:21.545 ","End":"03:23.970","Text":"So d is not our answer."},{"Start":"03:23.970 ","End":"03:28.070","Text":"That leaves us with c. Eukaryotes are characterized"},{"Start":"03:28.070 ","End":"03:32.450","Text":"by presence of a cell wall is a false statement."},{"Start":"03:32.450 ","End":"03:33.980","Text":"Or in other words,"},{"Start":"03:33.980 ","End":"03:38.870","Text":"eukaryotes are not characterized by presence of a cell wall."},{"Start":"03:38.870 ","End":"03:42.815","Text":"Therefore, our correct answer here is c,"},{"Start":"03:42.815 ","End":"03:44.825","Text":"presence of a cell wall."},{"Start":"03:44.825 ","End":"03:50.640","Text":"I hope we understood all this and we are ready for the next exercise. Thanks."}],"ID":26995},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 2","Duration":"2m 25s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25676,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.290 ","End":"00:03.000","Text":"Hi all, welcome back."},{"Start":"00:03.000 ","End":"00:09.570","Text":"In this exercise, we\u0027re going to talk about the cellular foundation, and specifically,"},{"Start":"00:09.570 ","End":"00:12.839","Text":"we\u0027re going to go into something that we mentioned"},{"Start":"00:12.839 ","End":"00:16.335","Text":"in the section where we talked about 2 types of cells that exist,"},{"Start":"00:16.335 ","End":"00:18.720","Text":"the eukaryotes and prokaryotes."},{"Start":"00:18.720 ","End":"00:21.060","Text":"What is the commonly used unit to measure"},{"Start":"00:21.060 ","End":"00:24.225","Text":"biological cells and what is the size of a cell?"},{"Start":"00:24.225 ","End":"00:26.970","Text":"If you remember, there was that unit that had"},{"Start":"00:26.970 ","End":"00:31.110","Text":"that weird marking and we called it the micrometer."},{"Start":"00:31.110 ","End":"00:33.195","Text":"There are 2 ways of writing it,"},{"Start":"00:33.195 ","End":"00:37.860","Text":"you have the American-based way and you have the British-based way."},{"Start":"00:37.860 ","End":"00:40.455","Text":"This is the more commonly used one,"},{"Start":"00:40.455 ","End":"00:43.500","Text":"and it is also called a micron."},{"Start":"00:43.500 ","End":"00:44.780","Text":"Now if you see here,"},{"Start":"00:44.780 ","End":"00:47.435","Text":"this is the shorthand, it\u0027s a mu,"},{"Start":"00:47.435 ","End":"00:52.040","Text":"this letter, and m for meter, a micrometer."},{"Start":"00:52.040 ","End":"00:56.240","Text":"This unit is equal to one millionth of a meter,"},{"Start":"00:56.240 ","End":"01:00.220","Text":"so this is a really small unit of measurement."},{"Start":"01:00.220 ","End":"01:04.174","Text":"Now, to the second part of our question,"},{"Start":"01:04.174 ","End":"01:08.675","Text":"we started with what is the used unit and we have the micrometer."},{"Start":"01:08.675 ","End":"01:10.580","Text":"Now, what is the size of a cell?"},{"Start":"01:10.580 ","End":"01:16.340","Text":"Well, this is actually a tricky question because the size of a cell depends on the type."},{"Start":"01:16.340 ","End":"01:19.970","Text":"We talked about both prokaryotes and eukaryotes."},{"Start":"01:19.970 ","End":"01:24.175","Text":"One is a little bigger than the other and more complex."},{"Start":"01:24.175 ","End":"01:26.990","Text":"Let\u0027s start with the prokaryotic cell."},{"Start":"01:26.990 ","End":"01:30.140","Text":"Remember prokaryotes, they came before,"},{"Start":"01:30.140 ","End":"01:34.325","Text":"they are the less complex of the two,"},{"Start":"01:34.325 ","End":"01:39.815","Text":"and their cell size ranges from 0.1-10 micrometers."},{"Start":"01:39.815 ","End":"01:45.965","Text":"Again, prokaryotic cell size ranges from 0.1-10 micrometers."},{"Start":"01:45.965 ","End":"01:49.085","Text":"On the other hand, we have the eukaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"01:49.085 ","End":"01:53.900","Text":"which is either 5 or 10 to a 100 micrometers in diameter."},{"Start":"01:53.900 ","End":"01:56.835","Text":"So you have 0.1-10 micrometers,"},{"Start":"01:56.835 ","End":"02:01.970","Text":"and the eukaryotic cell starts with the higher range of"},{"Start":"02:01.970 ","End":"02:07.765","Text":"the prokaryotic cells if we refer to the 10 and goes up to a 100 micrometers in diameter."},{"Start":"02:07.765 ","End":"02:12.120","Text":"You have the 2 types of cells and their range of sizes,"},{"Start":"02:12.120 ","End":"02:15.745","Text":"0.1-10 micrometers for the prokaryotic cell and"},{"Start":"02:15.745 ","End":"02:24.930","Text":"5 or 10 to 100 micrometers in diameter for the eukaryotic cell, and there you have it."}],"ID":26996},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 3","Duration":"3m 39s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25677,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.110 ","End":"00:04.380","Text":"Hey there and welcome to this exercise that is going to cover"},{"Start":"00:04.380 ","End":"00:08.220","Text":"parts of things that we covered in the two types of cells that exist,"},{"Start":"00:08.220 ","End":"00:13.885","Text":"the eukaryotes and the prokaryotes as part of cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:13.885 ","End":"00:21.045","Text":"Here\u0027s the question. The smallest living biological structure unit is a tissue,"},{"Start":"00:21.045 ","End":"00:27.465","Text":"an organelle, a molecule or a cell."},{"Start":"00:27.465 ","End":"00:30.855","Text":"Let\u0027s look at this question and see what we\u0027re being asked."},{"Start":"00:30.855 ","End":"00:36.730","Text":"We\u0027re being asked what\u0027s the smallest living biological structure?"},{"Start":"00:38.660 ","End":"00:42.270","Text":"Let\u0027s go with a, tissue."},{"Start":"00:42.270 ","End":"00:46.540","Text":"Now if you remember, we spoke of multicellular versus unicellular organisms,"},{"Start":"00:46.540 ","End":"00:49.155","Text":"and eukaryotes can be either."},{"Start":"00:49.155 ","End":"00:52.270","Text":"Prokaryotes are mostly unicellular."},{"Start":"00:52.270 ","End":"00:54.730","Text":"When we talked about the multicellular organism,"},{"Start":"00:54.730 ","End":"00:56.395","Text":"we gave the example of a cow."},{"Start":"00:56.395 ","End":"00:58.300","Text":"When we talked about the cow,"},{"Start":"00:58.300 ","End":"01:08.230","Text":"we said it is actually composed of organs that are made up of tissue,"},{"Start":"01:08.230 ","End":"01:12.795","Text":"which are composed of cells."},{"Start":"01:12.795 ","End":"01:17.515","Text":"Just looking at this right here and considering tissue,"},{"Start":"01:17.515 ","End":"01:19.840","Text":"obviously cells are smaller than tissue."},{"Start":"01:19.840 ","End":"01:22.885","Text":"Therefore tissue cannot be the right answer,"},{"Start":"01:22.885 ","End":"01:25.760","Text":"so we can move on to the next one."},{"Start":"01:25.820 ","End":"01:35.955","Text":"Organelles are units, are actual compartments or components within a cell."},{"Start":"01:35.955 ","End":"01:40.525","Text":"We specifically talked about them in eukaryotic cells, for example."},{"Start":"01:40.525 ","End":"01:43.945","Text":"We have different examples of this,"},{"Start":"01:43.945 ","End":"01:51.250","Text":"with nucleus being one example as an organelle or the Golgi."},{"Start":"01:51.250 ","End":"01:53.650","Text":"We also mentioned the ER."},{"Start":"01:53.650 ","End":"01:57.625","Text":"These are components within a cell."},{"Start":"01:57.625 ","End":"02:01.045","Text":"They may have functional or structural roles,"},{"Start":"02:01.045 ","End":"02:05.455","Text":"but they\u0027re not the smallest living biological structure."},{"Start":"02:05.455 ","End":"02:11.670","Text":"There cells that do not even have organelles or specific organelles,"},{"Start":"02:11.670 ","End":"02:13.325","Text":"so b, is incorrect."},{"Start":"02:13.325 ","End":"02:15.170","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to c,"},{"Start":"02:15.170 ","End":"02:19.590","Text":"the smallest living biological structure unit is a molecule."},{"Start":"02:21.350 ","End":"02:24.570","Text":"Now, we didn\u0027t really talk about molecules,"},{"Start":"02:24.570 ","End":"02:26.855","Text":"so this is throwing a curveball in there."},{"Start":"02:26.855 ","End":"02:34.040","Text":"But molecules aren\u0027t actually a living biological structure."},{"Start":"02:34.040 ","End":"02:37.535","Text":"This is more of a chemical structure."},{"Start":"02:37.535 ","End":"02:41.095","Text":"This is more of a physical structure."},{"Start":"02:41.095 ","End":"02:47.985","Text":"This is not a biological structure and therefore, this is incorrect."},{"Start":"02:47.985 ","End":"02:52.910","Text":"That leaves us with d. Does d sound like a correct option?"},{"Start":"02:52.910 ","End":"02:57.020","Text":"The smallest living biological structure unit is a cell,"},{"Start":"02:57.020 ","End":"02:58.625","Text":"and yes it is."},{"Start":"02:58.625 ","End":"03:01.715","Text":"The cell, if we look at it,"},{"Start":"03:01.715 ","End":"03:07.835","Text":"was what we defined to be the smallest living biological structure."},{"Start":"03:07.835 ","End":"03:11.030","Text":"Therefore, if we\u0027re looking at d,"},{"Start":"03:11.030 ","End":"03:13.400","Text":"we can say this is the correct answer."},{"Start":"03:13.400 ","End":"03:19.220","Text":"Even going over the example when we talked about tissue with the multicellular organism,"},{"Start":"03:19.220 ","End":"03:22.110","Text":"the cow that was made of organs,"},{"Start":"03:22.110 ","End":"03:24.185","Text":"that are made of tissues, that are made of cells."},{"Start":"03:24.185 ","End":"03:26.885","Text":"Cell is the smallest unit,"},{"Start":"03:26.885 ","End":"03:30.020","Text":"and therefore d is our correct answer."},{"Start":"03:30.020 ","End":"03:34.250","Text":"The smallest living biological structure unit is a cell."},{"Start":"03:34.250 ","End":"03:37.410","Text":"Let\u0027s see you in the next exercise."}],"ID":26997},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 4","Duration":"3m 16s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25678,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:01.250 ","End":"00:05.910","Text":"We have an additional exercise regarding the topic of"},{"Start":"00:05.910 ","End":"00:09.720","Text":"the cellular foundation and the section talking about two types of cells that exist,"},{"Start":"00:09.720 ","End":"00:12.670","Text":"the eukaryotes and prokaryotes."},{"Start":"00:12.830 ","End":"00:18.150","Text":"A membrane-enclosed nucleus is a characteristic of A,"},{"Start":"00:18.150 ","End":"00:20.385","Text":"all living organisms,"},{"Start":"00:20.385 ","End":"00:24.210","Text":"B, prokaryotic cells, C,"},{"Start":"00:24.210 ","End":"00:29.055","Text":"eukaryotic cells, D, bacteria and viruses."},{"Start":"00:29.055 ","End":"00:30.885","Text":"Let\u0027s look at this question."},{"Start":"00:30.885 ","End":"00:34.800","Text":"We\u0027re talking about membrane-enclosed nucleus."},{"Start":"00:34.800 ","End":"00:38.850","Text":"A membrane-enclosed nucleus."},{"Start":"00:38.850 ","End":"00:42.225","Text":"We talked about membrane-bound organelles remember?"},{"Start":"00:42.225 ","End":"00:48.190","Text":"Membrane-bound organelles."},{"Start":"00:48.190 ","End":"00:50.870","Text":"Now let\u0027s think about this."},{"Start":"00:50.870 ","End":"00:56.060","Text":"We know that this is something characteristic of eukaryotes,"},{"Start":"00:56.060 ","End":"01:00.950","Text":"whereas prokaryotes don\u0027t necessarily have membrane-bound organelles,"},{"Start":"01:00.950 ","End":"01:08.120","Text":"so we can probably say that this is not a characteristic of all living organisms."},{"Start":"01:08.120 ","End":"01:13.475","Text":"We can cross this out and say this is not the correct answer."},{"Start":"01:13.475 ","End":"01:15.380","Text":"Let\u0027s move on."},{"Start":"01:15.380 ","End":"01:20.390","Text":"B, a membrane-enclosed nucleus is a characteristic of prokaryotic cells."},{"Start":"01:20.390 ","End":"01:21.785","Text":"As we just mentioned,"},{"Start":"01:21.785 ","End":"01:26.985","Text":"prokaryotic cells are not characterized by membrane-bound organelles."},{"Start":"01:26.985 ","End":"01:31.010","Text":"Therefore, a membrane-enclosed nucleus is"},{"Start":"01:31.010 ","End":"01:35.090","Text":"not something that we will necessarily find in a prokaryotic cell."},{"Start":"01:35.090 ","End":"01:38.510","Text":"Therefore B is incorrect."},{"Start":"01:38.510 ","End":"01:42.230","Text":"Now let\u0027s go on to C. A membrane-enclosed nucleus"},{"Start":"01:42.230 ","End":"01:46.250","Text":"is a characteristic of eukaryotic cells."},{"Start":"01:46.250 ","End":"01:49.370","Text":"Eukaryotic cells do have"},{"Start":"01:49.370 ","End":"01:56.225","Text":"membrane-bound organelles and their genetic material is contained within the nucleus."},{"Start":"01:56.225 ","End":"02:02.915","Text":"If you remember, eukaryotic cells have linear chromosomes."},{"Start":"02:02.915 ","End":"02:06.555","Text":"This is our genetic material, our DNA,"},{"Start":"02:06.555 ","End":"02:11.515","Text":"and this is within the nucleus,"},{"Start":"02:11.515 ","End":"02:17.480","Text":"which has a nuclear membrane that keeps everything within the nucleus apart from"},{"Start":"02:17.480 ","End":"02:24.125","Text":"everything outside the nucleus within the eukaryotic cell."},{"Start":"02:24.125 ","End":"02:31.790","Text":"Therefore, this is a characteristic of the eukaryotic cells, a membrane-enclosed nucleus."},{"Start":"02:31.790 ","End":"02:33.860","Text":"But before we define anything,"},{"Start":"02:33.860 ","End":"02:41.225","Text":"let\u0027s check D. A membrane-enclosed nucleus is a characteristic of bacteria and viruses."},{"Start":"02:41.225 ","End":"02:43.330","Text":"Now, we didn\u0027t really talk about viruses."},{"Start":"02:43.330 ","End":"02:46.165","Text":"This can be something that you get a little confused by."},{"Start":"02:46.165 ","End":"02:51.705","Text":"But we can say that bacteria are prokaryotes."},{"Start":"02:51.705 ","End":"02:57.230","Text":"We just said that this is not a characteristic of prokaryotes."},{"Start":"02:57.230 ","End":"03:00.755","Text":"Therefore, even if we\u0027re not sure about viruses,"},{"Start":"03:00.755 ","End":"03:04.320","Text":"we can still say D is incorrect."},{"Start":"03:04.320 ","End":"03:06.965","Text":"That leaves us with C,"},{"Start":"03:06.965 ","End":"03:11.390","Text":"a membrane-enclosed nucleus is a characteristic of eukaryotic cells,"},{"Start":"03:11.390 ","End":"03:13.025","Text":"and this is correct,"},{"Start":"03:13.025 ","End":"03:15.810","Text":"and we will stick with this answer."}],"ID":26998},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Cellualr Architectrue Part 1","Duration":"7m 55s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25680,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.860 ","End":"00:04.230","Text":"We\u0027re going to be talking about the Cellular Architecture"},{"Start":"00:04.230 ","End":"00:06.059","Text":"within the Cellular Foundation,"},{"Start":"00:06.059 ","End":"00:08.460","Text":"and this is a very rich section,"},{"Start":"00:08.460 ","End":"00:11.280","Text":"and therefore we are splitting it to 3 parts."},{"Start":"00:11.280 ","End":"00:13.110","Text":"We\u0027re going to start with Part 1."},{"Start":"00:13.110 ","End":"00:15.315","Text":"Now by the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:15.315 ","End":"00:17.805","Text":"you\u0027ll be able to describe components of the cell,"},{"Start":"00:17.805 ","End":"00:20.280","Text":"explain the role and function of the cell components and organelles,"},{"Start":"00:20.280 ","End":"00:26.835","Text":"and specifically we\u0027re going to talk about structural features in the cell within Part 1."},{"Start":"00:26.835 ","End":"00:33.495","Text":"Let\u0027s dive in. Cells are the structural and functional units of all living organisms."},{"Start":"00:33.495 ","End":"00:40.070","Text":"They all share certain structural features and these include the plasma membrane,"},{"Start":"00:40.070 ","End":"00:44.225","Text":"which you could see is the outer shell of the cell,"},{"Start":"00:44.225 ","End":"00:47.000","Text":"the cytoplasm which is the liquid that\u0027s"},{"Start":"00:47.000 ","End":"00:50.165","Text":"contained in the cell within the plasma membrane,"},{"Start":"00:50.165 ","End":"00:53.750","Text":"the nucleus, which is this purple section right here,"},{"Start":"00:53.750 ","End":"00:55.292","Text":"and the cytoskeleton;"},{"Start":"00:55.292 ","End":"00:56.900","Text":"like the term skeleton,"},{"Start":"00:56.900 ","End":"01:02.390","Text":"it basically means filaments that arrange and maintain the structure of the cell."},{"Start":"01:02.390 ","End":"01:05.690","Text":"Now cells also share certain functional features,"},{"Start":"01:05.690 ","End":"01:07.550","Text":"and these will include the DNA,"},{"Start":"01:07.550 ","End":"01:10.970","Text":"the genetic material that defines the organism,"},{"Start":"01:10.970 ","End":"01:17.760","Text":"and different organelles that you find in the various cells."},{"Start":"01:17.760 ","End":"01:22.100","Text":"Let\u0027s move in and talk about the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"01:22.100 ","End":"01:25.250","Text":"This is what defines the perimeter of the cell."},{"Start":"01:25.250 ","End":"01:28.175","Text":"It separates its contents from the surrounding."},{"Start":"01:28.175 ","End":"01:33.260","Text":"It is what keeps things within the cell from what\u0027s outside of the cell."},{"Start":"01:33.260 ","End":"01:37.055","Text":"It is composed of lipid and protein molecules that form a thin,"},{"Start":"01:37.055 ","End":"01:42.020","Text":"strong, malleable, flexible, hydrophobic barrier around the cell."},{"Start":"01:42.020 ","End":"01:43.520","Text":"You could see lipids here,"},{"Start":"01:43.520 ","End":"01:44.690","Text":"which means fat,"},{"Start":"01:44.690 ","End":"01:47.730","Text":"and you have proteins here."},{"Start":"01:47.730 ","End":"01:51.245","Text":"Hydrophobic barrier if we take this term,"},{"Start":"01:51.245 ","End":"01:54.665","Text":"breaking it down, hydro means water,"},{"Start":"01:54.665 ","End":"01:58.760","Text":"phobic means fear like arachnophobia,"},{"Start":"01:58.760 ","End":"02:02.625","Text":"and this basically means it repels water."},{"Start":"02:02.625 ","End":"02:05.795","Text":"By having this barrier that repels water,"},{"Start":"02:05.795 ","End":"02:10.730","Text":"it means that it keeps the water on one side separate from the other side,"},{"Start":"02:10.730 ","End":"02:14.030","Text":"so if you have an aqueous solution or water solution on this side,"},{"Start":"02:14.030 ","End":"02:16.730","Text":"it is separate from the solution on this side."},{"Start":"02:16.730 ","End":"02:22.175","Text":"What you see here is basically the membrane of the cell and then it\u0027s zoomed in,"},{"Start":"02:22.175 ","End":"02:26.480","Text":"you see the phospholipid bi-layer,"},{"Start":"02:26.480 ","End":"02:31.530","Text":"and zooming in, you have the phospholipid."},{"Start":"02:32.560 ","End":"02:39.335","Text":"This plasma membrane controls the passage of organic molecules in and out of the cell."},{"Start":"02:39.335 ","End":"02:45.966","Text":"Because it\u0027s this barrier that separates between the inside and the outside solution,"},{"Start":"02:45.966 ","End":"02:49.280","Text":"it basically controls what can move throughout,"},{"Start":"02:49.280 ","End":"02:50.570","Text":"and how it does it,"},{"Start":"02:50.570 ","End":"02:57.710","Text":"is it has these pores that it really limits and controls what can go through them."},{"Start":"02:57.710 ","End":"03:03.530","Text":"Now, I mentioned this the phospholipid and you could see all this blue is"},{"Start":"03:03.530 ","End":"03:07.200","Text":"basically many of these components within"},{"Start":"03:07.200 ","End":"03:11.270","Text":"it and it\u0027s a bi-layer because you have this in a double layer."},{"Start":"03:11.270 ","End":"03:15.890","Text":"If you look here, this is the phospholipid head and the part here of the lipid,"},{"Start":"03:15.890 ","End":"03:18.815","Text":"and then the second layer is"},{"Start":"03:18.815 ","End":"03:23.480","Text":"inverted where you have the phospholipid head in mirror image to it,"},{"Start":"03:23.480 ","End":"03:29.650","Text":"and again, you have the whole chains of the lipids in the center."},{"Start":"03:29.650 ","End":"03:32.165","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about that a little bit more."},{"Start":"03:32.165 ","End":"03:34.580","Text":"Looking just at this structure,"},{"Start":"03:34.580 ","End":"03:37.369","Text":"this is a zoom-in to the phospholipid,"},{"Start":"03:37.369 ","End":"03:39.740","Text":"and is a lipid molecule,"},{"Start":"03:39.740 ","End":"03:47.255","Text":"a fat molecule with 2 fatty acid chains and a phosphate-containing group."},{"Start":"03:47.255 ","End":"03:50.960","Text":"Now, I mentioned hydrophobic barrier."},{"Start":"03:50.960 ","End":"03:53.630","Text":"Well, looking at the phospholipid,"},{"Start":"03:53.630 ","End":"03:56.510","Text":"you have the hydrophilic head,"},{"Start":"03:56.510 ","End":"04:00.526","Text":"so the phosphate this part right here,"},{"Start":"04:00.526 ","End":"04:06.195","Text":"basically is actually friendly to water, it loves water."},{"Start":"04:06.195 ","End":"04:08.490","Text":"Philic means love,"},{"Start":"04:08.490 ","End":"04:12.890","Text":"and it means that this can actually associate with water."},{"Start":"04:12.890 ","End":"04:17.060","Text":"While here we have the fatty acid,"},{"Start":"04:17.060 ","End":"04:22.130","Text":"this is the portion that\u0027s hydrophobic, it repels water."},{"Start":"04:22.130 ","End":"04:24.065","Text":"We have these 2 chains,"},{"Start":"04:24.065 ","End":"04:25.400","Text":"the hydrophobic tail,"},{"Start":"04:25.400 ","End":"04:28.985","Text":"and one way to remember this is when you think of oil."},{"Start":"04:28.985 ","End":"04:30.590","Text":"Oil is a fat."},{"Start":"04:30.590 ","End":"04:33.470","Text":"When you pour oil into water, what happens?"},{"Start":"04:33.470 ","End":"04:35.705","Text":"It stays separate, it doesn\u0027t mix,"},{"Start":"04:35.705 ","End":"04:38.180","Text":"it\u0027s because it\u0027s hydrophobic."},{"Start":"04:38.180 ","End":"04:43.320","Text":"Right here is your phospholipid."},{"Start":"04:43.320 ","End":"04:50.180","Text":"Going back to this plasma membrane it\u0027s a phospholipid bi-layer"},{"Start":"04:50.180 ","End":"04:57.650","Text":"because you have 1 layer here and the second layer is inverted and is here."},{"Start":"04:57.650 ","End":"05:03.770","Text":"You have the fatty chains in the center meaning this is hydrophobic,"},{"Start":"05:03.770 ","End":"05:10.100","Text":"it does not allow any of the aqueous solution,"},{"Start":"05:10.100 ","End":"05:13.490","Text":"any of the water-based liquid to control or to pass"},{"Start":"05:13.490 ","End":"05:17.780","Text":"through unless it\u0027s going through certain pores,"},{"Start":"05:17.780 ","End":"05:22.620","Text":"certain channels that are within the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"05:22.620 ","End":"05:26.045","Text":"Now, the individual lipids and proteins,"},{"Start":"05:26.045 ","End":"05:29.720","Text":"interestingly, are not covalently linked."},{"Start":"05:29.720 ","End":"05:32.270","Text":"We haven\u0027t really covered the term covalent,"},{"Start":"05:32.270 ","End":"05:35.548","Text":"but it basically means a very strong bond."},{"Start":"05:35.548 ","End":"05:40.535","Text":"But they do not have the strong bond thus the entire structure is flexible."},{"Start":"05:40.535 ","End":"05:45.680","Text":"These proteins can actually float in-between these phospholipids,"},{"Start":"05:45.680 ","End":"05:54.130","Text":"they can move and this allows some flexibility and malleability of this entire structure."},{"Start":"05:54.130 ","End":"05:56.315","Text":"As a cell grows,"},{"Start":"05:56.315 ","End":"06:01.340","Text":"newly made lipid and protein molecules are inserted into the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"06:01.340 ","End":"06:03.095","Text":"What does this mean?"},{"Start":"06:03.095 ","End":"06:08.945","Text":"Let\u0027s say the example of an organism that gains weight if it\u0027s a human or a dog,"},{"Start":"06:08.945 ","End":"06:14.150","Text":"what you see is the skin around where it\u0027s gaining weight is getting bigger and"},{"Start":"06:14.150 ","End":"06:17.120","Text":"the surface area is getting bigger and more"},{"Start":"06:17.120 ","End":"06:20.705","Text":"lipids and proteins can be inserted into this."},{"Start":"06:20.705 ","End":"06:26.015","Text":"Now, in cell division what happens is you have a cell,"},{"Start":"06:26.015 ","End":"06:28.504","Text":"this is let\u0027s say the nucleus,"},{"Start":"06:28.504 ","End":"06:31.340","Text":"and 2 cells are produced from the one,"},{"Start":"06:31.340 ","End":"06:33.649","Text":"each with its own membrane."},{"Start":"06:33.649 ","End":"06:37.580","Text":"What happens in preparation for cell division,"},{"Start":"06:37.580 ","End":"06:44.420","Text":"everything within the cell gets copied and then it starts to expand and grow,"},{"Start":"06:44.420 ","End":"06:49.220","Text":"and what will happen you have this copy of the nucleus for example,"},{"Start":"06:49.220 ","End":"06:50.705","Text":"and everything in it,"},{"Start":"06:50.705 ","End":"06:54.050","Text":"and then you have this split."},{"Start":"06:54.050 ","End":"06:56.300","Text":"There\u0027s actually this fission,"},{"Start":"06:56.300 ","End":"06:58.040","Text":"this pinching off,"},{"Start":"06:58.040 ","End":"07:01.840","Text":"so now you will have this structure,"},{"Start":"07:02.410 ","End":"07:06.710","Text":"and it\u0027s connected and this is where it will pinch off."},{"Start":"07:06.710 ","End":"07:11.750","Text":"This is where fission will occur and you will now have 2 identical cells,"},{"Start":"07:11.750 ","End":"07:16.545","Text":"this is the second generation and each one will have its own membrane."},{"Start":"07:16.545 ","End":"07:22.530","Text":"Now we have cell Number 1 and cell Number 2,"},{"Start":"07:22.530 ","End":"07:24.920","Text":"so this is the original cell,"},{"Start":"07:24.920 ","End":"07:30.010","Text":"and now we\u0027ll call this 1a and 1b,"},{"Start":"07:30.010 ","End":"07:32.665","Text":"just because they\u0027re identical."},{"Start":"07:32.665 ","End":"07:35.740","Text":"Now we came to the end of Part 1,"},{"Start":"07:35.740 ","End":"07:40.475","Text":"and we had talked about some structural features within the cellular architecture,"},{"Start":"07:40.475 ","End":"07:44.645","Text":"and are able to describe some of the components of these cell,"},{"Start":"07:44.645 ","End":"07:45.980","Text":"some of these structural features,"},{"Start":"07:45.980 ","End":"07:48.890","Text":"and explain the role and function of these components and organelles."},{"Start":"07:48.890 ","End":"07:50.945","Text":"We will now move to Part 2,"},{"Start":"07:50.945 ","End":"07:55.860","Text":"where we will further talk about additional structural components."}],"ID":26999},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Cellualr Architectrue Part 2","Duration":"11m 13s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25681,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.710","Text":"Hey there and welcome back to the cellular architecture within the cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:04.710 ","End":"00:07.650","Text":"We\u0027re now in Part 2 where we are going to"},{"Start":"00:07.650 ","End":"00:11.420","Text":"continue talking about structural features as we did in Part 1."},{"Start":"00:11.420 ","End":"00:12.840","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:12.840 ","End":"00:15.060","Text":"you should be able to describe components of the cell that are"},{"Start":"00:15.060 ","End":"00:19.410","Text":"structural and explain the role and function of these cell components in organelles."},{"Start":"00:19.410 ","End":"00:22.140","Text":"Now let\u0027s talk about the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"00:22.140 ","End":"00:25.935","Text":"This is enclosed by the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"00:25.935 ","End":"00:30.315","Text":"You have the plasma membrane and all that\u0027s inside,"},{"Start":"00:30.315 ","End":"00:35.030","Text":"that is the liquid with things in it is the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"00:35.030 ","End":"00:36.750","Text":"It\u0027s an aqueous solution,"},{"Start":"00:36.750 ","End":"00:38.959","Text":"meaning water-base like aqua,"},{"Start":"00:38.959 ","End":"00:46.700","Text":"and includes the cytosol and various particles that have specific functions."},{"Start":"00:46.700 ","End":"00:50.270","Text":"Now, we\u0027ll talk about this later."},{"Start":"00:50.270 ","End":"00:54.260","Text":"But it basically is made up of"},{"Start":"00:54.260 ","End":"01:00.860","Text":"organelles that are suspended in the cytosol in this gel-like substance."},{"Start":"01:00.860 ","End":"01:07.609","Text":"This is the region between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope."},{"Start":"01:07.609 ","End":"01:11.630","Text":"Now, many metabolic reactions,"},{"Start":"01:11.630 ","End":"01:13.670","Text":"such as protein synthesis,"},{"Start":"01:13.670 ","End":"01:18.395","Text":"take place in various regions of the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"01:18.395 ","End":"01:22.804","Text":"Now, we said that they\u0027re particles with specific functions."},{"Start":"01:22.804 ","End":"01:24.665","Text":"Here\u0027s some examples."},{"Start":"01:24.665 ","End":"01:27.305","Text":"We have the mitochondria and chloroplasts."},{"Start":"01:27.305 ","End":"01:32.990","Text":"These are membranous organelles within the cell in the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"01:32.990 ","End":"01:36.065","Text":"We have ribosomes and proteasomes."},{"Start":"01:36.065 ","End":"01:39.470","Text":"These are supramolecular structures which are the sites of"},{"Start":"01:39.470 ","End":"01:42.965","Text":"protein synthesis and degradation respectively,"},{"Start":"01:42.965 ","End":"01:46.670","Text":"meaning ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis and"},{"Start":"01:46.670 ","End":"01:50.780","Text":"proteasomes are responsible for protein degradation."},{"Start":"01:50.780 ","End":"01:52.790","Text":"Why would we want protein degradation?"},{"Start":"01:52.790 ","End":"01:57.260","Text":"If they are already older or damage,"},{"Start":"01:57.260 ","End":"01:59.930","Text":"they would want to be broken down."},{"Start":"01:59.930 ","End":"02:04.040","Text":"Now, supramolecular structure basically means it\u0027s not just a simple protein,"},{"Start":"02:04.040 ","End":"02:09.365","Text":"it\u0027s a protein associated with another protein or other molecules or other organelles."},{"Start":"02:09.365 ","End":"02:14.975","Text":"These are examples of particles that are within the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"02:14.975 ","End":"02:21.080","Text":"Now it has a semi-solid consistency which comes from the proteins within it."},{"Start":"02:21.080 ","End":"02:24.620","Text":"Now many metabolic reactions take place in the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"02:24.620 ","End":"02:31.220","Text":"As mentioned, we have different particles that have functions like mitochondria."},{"Start":"02:31.220 ","End":"02:37.370","Text":"These contribute to these metabolic reactions that take place in the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"02:37.370 ","End":"02:42.695","Text":"Just for practical information and uses in the lab,"},{"Start":"02:42.695 ","End":"02:44.750","Text":"in molecular biology, etc."},{"Start":"02:44.750 ","End":"02:49.075","Text":"The cytoplasm can be centrifuged at a 150,000g."},{"Start":"02:49.075 ","End":"02:54.725","Text":"This is an example of a tabletop centrifuge where you put Eppendorf tubes,"},{"Start":"02:54.725 ","End":"02:56.900","Text":"that a lab tubes into it."},{"Start":"02:56.900 ","End":"03:00.245","Text":"Then you use this to spin these down."},{"Start":"03:00.245 ","End":"03:02.855","Text":"Then you have the centrifugal force,"},{"Start":"03:02.855 ","End":"03:06.020","Text":"the circular force when things spin really quickly,"},{"Start":"03:06.020 ","End":"03:09.125","Text":"they get pulled down to the ends."},{"Start":"03:09.125 ","End":"03:11.145","Text":"They get pulled outside."},{"Start":"03:11.145 ","End":"03:14.780","Text":"If you\u0027re driving really fast and going around a corner,"},{"Start":"03:14.780 ","End":"03:19.070","Text":"you get pulled onto the opposite side,"},{"Start":"03:19.070 ","End":"03:21.710","Text":"the outside of the curve of the turn."},{"Start":"03:21.710 ","End":"03:22.970","Text":"This is what happens here."},{"Start":"03:22.970 ","End":"03:25.220","Text":"Things get pulled down to the outside,"},{"Start":"03:25.220 ","End":"03:32.075","Text":"and 150,000 g\u0027s means it\u0027s fast and G is the gravitational force of the earth."},{"Start":"03:32.075 ","End":"03:34.430","Text":"G stands for the gravitational force,"},{"Start":"03:34.430 ","End":"03:37.279","Text":"though this can be also translated to RPM."},{"Start":"03:37.279 ","End":"03:41.765","Text":"Commonly in lab protocols you\u0027ll either see G or RPM,"},{"Start":"03:41.765 ","End":"03:47.930","Text":"RPM is rounds per minute and translating because you have rounds per minute,"},{"Start":"03:47.930 ","End":"03:53.705","Text":"this can change by the size of the diameter of the rotor of the centrifuge."},{"Start":"03:53.705 ","End":"03:58.910","Text":"It can change from different size to centrifuges from 1 to the other."},{"Start":"03:58.910 ","End":"04:04.100","Text":"You have this ability to translate from G\u0027s to RPM."},{"Start":"04:04.100 ","End":"04:05.915","Text":"It\u0027s a simple calculation."},{"Start":"04:05.915 ","End":"04:09.650","Text":"But bottom line, using this speed,"},{"Start":"04:09.650 ","End":"04:14.785","Text":"you can actually spin down the cytoplasm and"},{"Start":"04:14.785 ","End":"04:20.470","Text":"a particulate components mentioned above previously will sediment."},{"Start":"04:20.470 ","End":"04:25.130","Text":"This is while the supernatant fluid in the cytosol that is"},{"Start":"04:25.130 ","End":"04:29.495","Text":"now a highly concentrated solution, remains on top."},{"Start":"04:29.495 ","End":"04:32.660","Text":"You spin the cytoplasm,"},{"Start":"04:32.660 ","End":"04:34.670","Text":"the particulate components sediment,"},{"Start":"04:34.670 ","End":"04:36.520","Text":"the heavier components sediments."},{"Start":"04:36.520 ","End":"04:40.400","Text":"If you see this is just a simple illustration of what we saw before."},{"Start":"04:40.400 ","End":"04:41.900","Text":"You have 2 tubes,"},{"Start":"04:41.900 ","End":"04:43.775","Text":"they\u0027re spinning really quickly."},{"Start":"04:43.775 ","End":"04:47.565","Text":"What happens is the heavier particles get pulled to the bottom."},{"Start":"04:47.565 ","End":"04:50.150","Text":"The particulate component sediment,"},{"Start":"04:50.150 ","End":"04:53.330","Text":"the pellet, they come to the bottom of the tube."},{"Start":"04:53.330 ","End":"04:56.885","Text":"While at the top you have the supernatant."},{"Start":"04:56.885 ","End":"04:58.820","Text":"That\u0027s what we call what remains on top."},{"Start":"04:58.820 ","End":"05:01.540","Text":"The supernatant or sup for short."},{"Start":"05:01.540 ","End":"05:03.455","Text":"This is the fluid,"},{"Start":"05:03.455 ","End":"05:05.570","Text":"the cytosol that is"},{"Start":"05:05.570 ","End":"05:11.030","Text":"containing RNA and enzymes and the components of which both are made of,"},{"Start":"05:11.030 ","End":"05:15.095","Text":"which are nucleotides for RNA and amino acids for enzymes."},{"Start":"05:15.095 ","End":"05:19.805","Text":"It also contains smaller organic molecules called metabolites."},{"Start":"05:19.805 ","End":"05:23.420","Text":"This is all within the sup up here."},{"Start":"05:23.990 ","End":"05:29.030","Text":"You will also find intermediates in biosynthetic and degradative pathways."},{"Start":"05:29.030 ","End":"05:31.820","Text":"These are coenzymes as well as"},{"Start":"05:31.820 ","End":"05:35.570","Text":"compounds that are essential to many enzyme catalyzed reactions."},{"Start":"05:35.570 ","End":"05:37.485","Text":"There\u0027s a lot of information here."},{"Start":"05:37.485 ","End":"05:42.245","Text":"Bottom line, what you find in the sup are the smaller components."},{"Start":"05:42.245 ","End":"05:46.655","Text":"You will also find inorganic ions like calcium, sodium."},{"Start":"05:46.655 ","End":"05:48.980","Text":"What makes it an ion is not just an element,"},{"Start":"05:48.980 ","End":"05:52.385","Text":"it\u0027s not calcium, but it\u0027s calcium 2 plus."},{"Start":"05:52.385 ","End":"05:55.970","Text":"Now what you see here are Eppendorf tubes,"},{"Start":"05:55.970 ","End":"05:58.310","Text":"test tubes where these were spun down."},{"Start":"05:58.310 ","End":"05:59.990","Text":"Now this is not just the cytoplasm,"},{"Start":"05:59.990 ","End":"06:03.485","Text":"this is actually just to illustrate what happens."},{"Start":"06:03.485 ","End":"06:07.130","Text":"This is actually from real labs where we\u0027re spinning down."},{"Start":"06:07.130 ","End":"06:11.705","Text":"It\u0027s easier to see here and we pelleted bacteria."},{"Start":"06:11.705 ","End":"06:17.900","Text":"What you see here is a pellet of bacteria and what\u0027s in the sup."},{"Start":"06:17.900 ","End":"06:22.590","Text":"The clear is basically called LB, it\u0027s a broth."},{"Start":"06:22.590 ","End":"06:26.750","Text":"It\u0027s the nutrition that we grow bacteria in,"},{"Start":"06:26.750 ","End":"06:31.085","Text":"and then when we want to just keep the bacteria after spinning them down,"},{"Start":"06:31.085 ","End":"06:32.950","Text":"we can suck this out."},{"Start":"06:32.950 ","End":"06:36.290","Text":"You basically have the same idea that if we\u0027re talking about"},{"Start":"06:36.290 ","End":"06:39.740","Text":"the cytoplasm that we spun down in 150,000 G,"},{"Start":"06:39.740 ","End":"06:43.775","Text":"you\u0027ll have the sup that contains all these things."},{"Start":"06:43.775 ","End":"06:48.340","Text":"You can actually collect the sup to get these things,"},{"Start":"06:48.340 ","End":"06:53.240","Text":"or you have a bigger particles that are at the bottom and you can resuspend"},{"Start":"06:53.240 ","End":"06:58.930","Text":"these with liquid and you will have the pellet with all the material in it."},{"Start":"06:58.930 ","End":"07:02.325","Text":"Next, we\u0027re going to talk about the nucleus."},{"Start":"07:02.325 ","End":"07:05.665","Text":"All cells have a nucleoid or a nucleus."},{"Start":"07:05.665 ","End":"07:08.080","Text":"Though for some cells these are transient,"},{"Start":"07:08.080 ","End":"07:11.410","Text":"which means they do not remain, they\u0027re not permanent."},{"Start":"07:11.410 ","End":"07:14.470","Text":"Now the genome is composed of DNA."},{"Start":"07:14.470 ","End":"07:20.215","Text":"The genetic material is stored with its associated protein and replicates here."},{"Start":"07:20.215 ","End":"07:22.345","Text":"If you looked here we have the cell,"},{"Start":"07:22.345 ","End":"07:25.270","Text":"this is the nucleus or the nucleoid."},{"Start":"07:25.270 ","End":"07:28.225","Text":"Here we see just the nucleus."},{"Start":"07:28.225 ","End":"07:32.345","Text":"Now the genetic material and the proteins,"},{"Start":"07:32.345 ","End":"07:36.640","Text":"these replicate within the nucleus or the nucleoid."},{"Start":"07:36.640 ","End":"07:40.135","Text":"Now, the nucleoid is in prokaryotes,"},{"Start":"07:40.135 ","End":"07:41.680","Text":"bacteria and archaea remember,"},{"Start":"07:41.680 ","End":"07:44.530","Text":"are part of the prokaryotic domains group"},{"Start":"07:44.530 ","End":"07:48.304","Text":"and it is not separated from the cytoplasm by membrane."},{"Start":"07:48.304 ","End":"07:52.085","Text":"The nucleoid is not separated by a membrane."},{"Start":"07:52.085 ","End":"07:56.120","Text":"The nucleus and eukaryotes is enclosed with a double membrane."},{"Start":"07:56.120 ","End":"08:02.030","Text":"The nuclear envelope that does separate all that\u0027s inside the nucleus,"},{"Start":"08:02.030 ","End":"08:05.540","Text":"the genetic material from inside"},{"Start":"08:05.540 ","End":"08:09.680","Text":"the nucleus where there\u0027s the nucleoplasm similar to the cytoplasm,"},{"Start":"08:09.680 ","End":"08:14.540","Text":"except the cytoplasm is on the outside of the nucleus."},{"Start":"08:14.540 ","End":"08:17.640","Text":"The nucleoplasm is inside."},{"Start":"08:17.640 ","End":"08:21.349","Text":"You have this nuclear envelope, this membrane,"},{"Start":"08:21.349 ","End":"08:25.055","Text":"which is similar to the plasma membrane that separates"},{"Start":"08:25.055 ","End":"08:30.650","Text":"the internal portion of the nucleus from the outside portion,"},{"Start":"08:30.650 ","End":"08:33.845","Text":"the cytoplasm that\u0027s within the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"08:33.845 ","End":"08:37.220","Text":"The nucleus contains a region called the nucleolus,"},{"Start":"08:37.220 ","End":"08:39.255","Text":"and that is in the center."},{"Start":"08:39.255 ","End":"08:44.560","Text":"That is where ribosomes are assembled from ribosomal RNA and protein."},{"Start":"08:44.560 ","End":"08:48.680","Text":"If you remember, ribosomes are what synthesize protein."},{"Start":"08:48.680 ","End":"08:51.620","Text":"Ribosomes are basically a combination."},{"Start":"08:51.620 ","End":"08:53.450","Text":"Remember we said a macromolecule,"},{"Start":"08:53.450 ","End":"08:55.710","Text":"a combination of ribosomal RNA,"},{"Start":"08:55.710 ","End":"08:58.650","Text":"rRNA for short, and protein."},{"Start":"08:58.650 ","End":"09:02.930","Text":"Ribosomes are large RNA protein complexes."},{"Start":"09:02.930 ","End":"09:07.900","Text":"We call these macromolecules before that are involved in protein synthesis in cells."},{"Start":"09:07.900 ","End":"09:14.170","Text":"Now the nucleoplasm is a semi-solid fluid inside the nucleus."},{"Start":"09:14.170 ","End":"09:18.265","Text":"It is where chromatin and the nucleolus are located."},{"Start":"09:18.265 ","End":"09:21.245","Text":"You have the nucleoplasm,"},{"Start":"09:21.245 ","End":"09:22.880","Text":"remember the term cytoplasm,"},{"Start":"09:22.880 ","End":"09:24.650","Text":"so it is the solution."},{"Start":"09:24.650 ","End":"09:29.960","Text":"Remember if we said cytoplasm is somewhat also semi-solid with the protein inside,"},{"Start":"09:29.960 ","End":"09:32.525","Text":"the nucleoplasm is very similar in the fact that it\u0027s"},{"Start":"09:32.525 ","End":"09:36.230","Text":"an aqueous solution that has also different things"},{"Start":"09:36.230 ","End":"09:39.470","Text":"inside that make it a semi-solid fluid that\u0027s"},{"Start":"09:39.470 ","End":"09:43.340","Text":"inside the nucleus and it contains the nucleolus,"},{"Start":"09:43.340 ","End":"09:46.430","Text":"and it\u0027s where the chromatin is."},{"Start":"09:46.430 ","End":"09:49.885","Text":"We will talk about chromatin in a minute."},{"Start":"09:49.885 ","End":"09:53.870","Text":"Now the nuclear envelope is a double membrane structure of"},{"Start":"09:53.870 ","End":"09:58.865","Text":"phospholipid that constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus,"},{"Start":"09:58.865 ","End":"10:01.145","Text":"similar to the plasma membrane,"},{"Start":"10:01.145 ","End":"10:05.150","Text":"it is a structure of phospholipids and it"},{"Start":"10:05.150 ","End":"10:09.620","Text":"separates the inside from the outside of the nucleus."},{"Start":"10:09.620 ","End":"10:14.690","Text":"Nuclear pores in the nuclear envelope allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus."},{"Start":"10:14.690 ","End":"10:17.430","Text":"Does this remind you of the plasma membrane? It should."},{"Start":"10:17.430 ","End":"10:22.159","Text":"You see an example of a nuclear pore here and it allows things that had been synthesized,"},{"Start":"10:22.159 ","End":"10:24.710","Text":"let\u0027s say the ribosomes that we mentioned that are inside"},{"Start":"10:24.710 ","End":"10:27.770","Text":"the nucleolus that synthesize protein."},{"Start":"10:27.770 ","End":"10:34.280","Text":"Now we want this protein to come out of the nucleus and function."},{"Start":"10:34.280 ","End":"10:38.765","Text":"It will come out of the nuclear pore into the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"10:38.765 ","End":"10:41.510","Text":"Now it controls the passage of ions, molecules,"},{"Start":"10:41.510 ","End":"10:44.750","Text":"and RNA between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm,"},{"Start":"10:44.750 ","End":"10:46.354","Text":"which is on the outside."},{"Start":"10:46.354 ","End":"10:50.525","Text":"The nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum."},{"Start":"10:50.525 ","End":"10:54.355","Text":"We have the ER and it\u0027s out here."},{"Start":"10:54.355 ","End":"10:58.430","Text":"Now we\u0027ve finished Part 2 of cellular architecture and"},{"Start":"10:58.430 ","End":"11:02.255","Text":"we had talked about additional structural components."},{"Start":"11:02.255 ","End":"11:04.240","Text":"Together between Part 1 and Part 2,"},{"Start":"11:04.240 ","End":"11:07.190","Text":"we are able to describe components of the cell that are structural and"},{"Start":"11:07.190 ","End":"11:10.295","Text":"explain the role and function of these structural components and organelles."},{"Start":"11:10.295 ","End":"11:13.290","Text":"Now we\u0027ll move into Part 3."}],"ID":27000},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Cellualr Architectrue Part 3","Duration":"11m 32s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25682,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:05.430","Text":"Hey guys and welcome back to cellular architecture, Part 3."},{"Start":"00:05.430 ","End":"00:08.370","Text":"We are within cellular foundation and now in Part 3,"},{"Start":"00:08.370 ","End":"00:11.430","Text":"we\u0027re moving on to functional features of the cell."},{"Start":"00:11.430 ","End":"00:13.110","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:13.110 ","End":"00:17.250","Text":"you will be able to describe functional features of the cell,"},{"Start":"00:17.250 ","End":"00:20.680","Text":"and explain the role and function of these components and organelles."},{"Start":"00:20.680 ","End":"00:23.160","Text":"In general, now we have covered"},{"Start":"00:23.160 ","End":"00:28.425","Text":"the cellular architecture altogether and now we are diving in."},{"Start":"00:28.425 ","End":"00:33.720","Text":"Now we will talk about the DNA that we said that is in the nucleus."},{"Start":"00:33.720 ","End":"00:35.970","Text":"Now, the nucleus contains the genetic material, the DNA."},{"Start":"00:35.970 ","End":"00:41.555","Text":"DNA is organized into separate units called chromosomes."},{"Start":"00:41.555 ","End":"00:44.120","Text":"You can see an example of chromosome here."},{"Start":"00:44.120 ","End":"00:46.820","Text":"You have the DNA which is a double helix."},{"Start":"00:46.820 ","End":"00:48.390","Text":"We haven\u0027t talked about that too much."},{"Start":"00:48.390 ","End":"00:50.570","Text":"It\u0027s associated with proteins."},{"Start":"00:50.570 ","End":"00:53.795","Text":"You have histones that circulate and arrange it,"},{"Start":"00:53.795 ","End":"01:01.760","Text":"and then this arranges into this tight wound-up formation and it forms these chromosomes."},{"Start":"01:01.760 ","End":"01:04.370","Text":"Now, chromosome is DNA that\u0027s compacted with"},{"Start":"01:04.370 ","End":"01:08.520","Text":"nucleic acid-binding proteins to minimize its size."},{"Start":"01:08.520 ","End":"01:13.850","Text":"That\u0027s how we fit our huge genome into a small nucleus."},{"Start":"01:13.850 ","End":"01:19.010","Text":"The unwound protein chromosome complexes are called chromatin."},{"Start":"01:19.010 ","End":"01:25.850","Text":"You unwind the chromosome and then you find the chromatin."},{"Start":"01:25.850 ","End":"01:28.280","Text":"Here you see the chromatin."},{"Start":"01:28.280 ","End":"01:30.170","Text":"Now, in eukaryotes,"},{"Start":"01:30.170 ","End":"01:33.040","Text":"DNA is organized in chromosomes with a linear structure."},{"Start":"01:33.040 ","End":"01:35.180","Text":"You see here, it\u0027s linear."},{"Start":"01:35.180 ","End":"01:39.950","Text":"Every eukaryotic species has a specific number of chromosomes."},{"Start":"01:39.950 ","End":"01:41.600","Text":"In the nuclei of it cells,"},{"Start":"01:41.600 ","End":"01:47.995","Text":"it will have maybe 10-50 unique chromosomes per cell."},{"Start":"01:47.995 ","End":"01:50.940","Text":"Now talking about the prokaryotes."},{"Start":"01:50.940 ","End":"01:55.820","Text":"In prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome."},{"Start":"01:55.820 ","End":"01:58.130","Text":"In prokaryotes, you actually will see"},{"Start":"01:58.130 ","End":"02:03.125","Text":"a circular chromosome and it\u0027s located in the nucleoid."},{"Start":"02:03.125 ","End":"02:06.950","Text":"If you remember, we mentioned the nuclei before that\u0027s in prokaryotes,"},{"Start":"02:06.950 ","End":"02:09.770","Text":"it is not separated by a membrane."},{"Start":"02:09.770 ","End":"02:12.680","Text":"Now many types of bacteria contain plasmids,"},{"Start":"02:12.680 ","End":"02:15.740","Text":"also circular DNA molecules,"},{"Start":"02:15.740 ","End":"02:19.460","Text":"circular DNA material, but it is separate from the chromosome."},{"Start":"02:19.460 ","End":"02:23.540","Text":"There can be more than 1 plasmid in a bacterial cell."},{"Start":"02:23.540 ","End":"02:27.905","Text":"If you have a bacterial cell and you have the chromosome,"},{"Start":"02:27.905 ","End":"02:34.260","Text":"you can also have a plasmid and even another plasmid."},{"Start":"02:34.260 ","End":"02:39.785","Text":"These will replicate possibly separately and independently"},{"Start":"02:39.785 ","End":"02:45.965","Text":"from the circular chromosome of the actual bacterial genetic material."},{"Start":"02:45.965 ","End":"02:50.510","Text":"The plasmid replicates independently of the bacterial chromosome."},{"Start":"02:50.510 ","End":"02:55.010","Text":"Plasmids allow for lateral transfer of genetic information between bacteria,"},{"Start":"02:55.010 ","End":"02:57.605","Text":"meaning not during cell replication."},{"Start":"02:57.605 ","End":"03:03.350","Text":"Rather, transfer of a plasmid for 1 bacterial cell to a neighboring bacterial cell."},{"Start":"03:03.350 ","End":"03:04.895","Text":"What does that mean?"},{"Start":"03:04.895 ","End":"03:09.615","Text":"If we have cell bacteria A,"},{"Start":"03:09.615 ","End":"03:12.210","Text":"let\u0027s write bacteria A,"},{"Start":"03:12.210 ","End":"03:15.270","Text":"and you have the chromosome,"},{"Start":"03:15.270 ","End":"03:20.040","Text":"we also have bacteria B with its chromosome."},{"Start":"03:20.040 ","End":"03:26.350","Text":"Then we said that bacteria A has a plasmid, for example."},{"Start":"03:26.350 ","End":"03:28.430","Text":"This is the plasmid."},{"Start":"03:28.430 ","End":"03:32.840","Text":"This is a genetic sequence that is separate from the chromosome."},{"Start":"03:32.840 ","End":"03:43.065","Text":"This can actually, from an association between the cells can move over to bacteria B."},{"Start":"03:43.065 ","End":"03:47.810","Text":"Now bacteria B will have this plasmid in it,"},{"Start":"03:47.810 ","End":"03:49.695","Text":"while since it moved out of bacteria A,"},{"Start":"03:49.695 ","End":"03:51.755","Text":"it no longer has it."},{"Start":"03:51.755 ","End":"04:01.730","Text":"Now, this is different than regular transfer genetic material within cell replication."},{"Start":"04:01.730 ","End":"04:05.540","Text":"This is different from regular cell replication,"},{"Start":"04:05.540 ","End":"04:12.950","Text":"where what happens as this cell starts copying all its contents and it grows with"},{"Start":"04:12.950 ","End":"04:16.890","Text":"the plasma membrane and then you end up with"},{"Start":"04:16.890 ","End":"04:22.400","Text":"2 identical cells that all its contents have been copied."},{"Start":"04:22.400 ","End":"04:32.060","Text":"You have bacteria A_1 and bacteria A_1’."},{"Start":"04:32.060 ","End":"04:36.260","Text":"They are the same second generation after replication."},{"Start":"04:36.260 ","End":"04:37.685","Text":"This is regular."},{"Start":"04:37.685 ","End":"04:43.975","Text":"The plasmid can do lateral transfer and it doesn\u0027t need to transfer through replication."},{"Start":"04:43.975 ","End":"04:49.880","Text":"Now, if this bacteria has in this plasmid, it codes,"},{"Start":"04:49.880 ","End":"04:52.295","Text":"for example, for milkshakes,"},{"Start":"04:52.295 ","End":"04:55.650","Text":"and it can create milkshakes once it moved over here,"},{"Start":"04:55.650 ","End":"04:57.650","Text":"now this cell can make milkshakes."},{"Start":"04:57.650 ","End":"05:01.295","Text":"Sorry, milkshake is very non-practical or realistic,"},{"Start":"05:01.295 ","End":"05:04.290","Text":"but I guess I just feel like a milkshake right now."},{"Start":"05:04.760 ","End":"05:10.685","Text":"Now we\u0027re going to talk about an additional structural feature, the cytoskeleton."},{"Start":"05:10.685 ","End":"05:14.465","Text":"By this term, you have a little hint here,"},{"Start":"05:14.465 ","End":"05:16.835","Text":"skeleton, just like in our body."},{"Start":"05:16.835 ","End":"05:21.245","Text":"The bone structure, the cytoskeleton maintains the cell structure."},{"Start":"05:21.245 ","End":"05:25.970","Text":"It is a network of intracellular filaments consisting of protein assemblies."},{"Start":"05:25.970 ","End":"05:28.670","Text":"This network of interlinking protein filaments"},{"Start":"05:28.670 ","End":"05:32.600","Text":"extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane."},{"Start":"05:32.600 ","End":"05:37.699","Text":"As depicted here in this figure you see these gray lines."},{"Start":"05:37.699 ","End":"05:41.075","Text":"These are the filaments of the cytoskeleton."},{"Start":"05:41.075 ","End":"05:44.450","Text":"Now, the cytoskeleton is present in the cytoplasm of"},{"Start":"05:44.450 ","End":"05:48.320","Text":"all cells including eukaryotes, and prokaryotes."},{"Start":"05:48.320 ","End":"05:51.560","Text":"Though with eukaryotes it was known to have this,"},{"Start":"05:51.560 ","End":"05:56.255","Text":"but prokaryotes only recently have been defined as also having cytoskeletons."},{"Start":"05:56.255 ","End":"06:02.690","Text":"This is more recently established with the help of advances in visual technologies,"},{"Start":"06:02.690 ","End":"06:06.500","Text":"and structural determination that resulted in the discovery of"},{"Start":"06:06.500 ","End":"06:11.750","Text":"filaments structures in these cells in about the early \u002790s."},{"Start":"06:11.750 ","End":"06:14.960","Text":"There were equivalent filamentous structures"},{"Start":"06:14.960 ","End":"06:17.810","Text":"that were found in bacterial proteins and such,"},{"Start":"06:17.810 ","End":"06:23.870","Text":"that were similar to filamentous cytoskeleton structures that eukaryotes have."},{"Start":"06:23.870 ","End":"06:27.680","Text":"Now, these filaments are capable of rapid growth, assembly,"},{"Start":"06:27.680 ","End":"06:32.830","Text":"or disassembly depending on the cell\u0027s requirements on the cell\u0027s needs."},{"Start":"06:32.830 ","End":"06:37.633","Text":"Now, the cytoskeleton of eukaryotes is composed of 3 main proteins,"},{"Start":"06:37.633 ","End":"06:43.330","Text":"and they differ in the width of the composition and the specific function."},{"Start":"06:43.330 ","End":"06:46.520","Text":"Looking at the eukaryotic plant cell that has the cell wall and"},{"Start":"06:46.520 ","End":"06:49.580","Text":"the eukaryotic animal cell with the plasma membrane,"},{"Start":"06:49.580 ","End":"06:51.919","Text":"they all have these 3 main proteins."},{"Start":"06:51.919 ","End":"06:55.370","Text":"You have the microfilaments that are also called actin filaments,"},{"Start":"06:55.370 ","End":"06:57.515","Text":"and these are the thinnest components."},{"Start":"06:57.515 ","End":"07:00.395","Text":"If you look here, it\u0027s the one in the middle,"},{"Start":"07:00.395 ","End":"07:03.515","Text":"the arrows, and it\u0027s these narrow ones."},{"Start":"07:03.515 ","End":"07:07.010","Text":"Now, the second type of protein,"},{"Start":"07:07.010 ","End":"07:09.960","Text":"of cytoskeleton is the microtubules."},{"Start":"07:09.960 ","End":"07:13.170","Text":"These are the thickest of the 3 components of the cytoskeleton."},{"Start":"07:13.170 ","End":"07:14.955","Text":"As you see the microtubules here,"},{"Start":"07:14.955 ","End":"07:17.840","Text":"there\u0027s an illustration with arrows and you see these to be"},{"Start":"07:17.840 ","End":"07:20.630","Text":"again in the eukaryotic cells,"},{"Start":"07:20.630 ","End":"07:22.790","Text":"either animal cells or plant cell."},{"Start":"07:22.790 ","End":"07:27.350","Text":"The third type of protein in the cytoskeleton is the intermediate filaments,"},{"Start":"07:27.350 ","End":"07:31.175","Text":"and these are the most stable of the 3 components of the cytoskeleton."},{"Start":"07:31.175 ","End":"07:34.220","Text":"Here you see the intermediate filaments."},{"Start":"07:34.220 ","End":"07:37.340","Text":"Now the assembly and disassembly of"},{"Start":"07:37.340 ","End":"07:42.705","Text":"the organelles are actually controlled by other proteins."},{"Start":"07:42.705 ","End":"07:48.665","Text":"This allows for movement of organelles and controls this whole orientation structure."},{"Start":"07:48.665 ","End":"07:52.219","Text":"Though it may seem like it\u0027s random,"},{"Start":"07:52.219 ","End":"07:57.580","Text":"it\u0027s actually tightly regulated and orchestrated by these additional proteins."},{"Start":"07:57.580 ","End":"08:01.370","Text":"Now furthermore, these filaments are not permanent structures."},{"Start":"08:01.370 ","End":"08:04.820","Text":"They undergo this constant disassembly into their protein subunits,"},{"Start":"08:04.820 ","End":"08:09.230","Text":"and reassembly into filaments and their location and cells are not rigidly fixed."},{"Start":"08:09.230 ","End":"08:15.860","Text":"This allows for the flexibility and the movement needed within the cell along with"},{"Start":"08:15.860 ","End":"08:19.565","Text":"this regulation by other proteins that allows for movement"},{"Start":"08:19.565 ","End":"08:23.405","Text":"of other organelles along the cytoskeleton,"},{"Start":"08:23.405 ","End":"08:25.880","Text":"or these proteins serve to link or bundle"},{"Start":"08:25.880 ","End":"08:29.510","Text":"the filaments or to move these cytoplasmic organelles."},{"Start":"08:29.510 ","End":"08:32.300","Text":"Let\u0027s move to the functional features of the cell."},{"Start":"08:32.300 ","End":"08:36.485","Text":"There are 3 abundant organelles in most types of eukaryotic cells,"},{"Start":"08:36.485 ","End":"08:41.195","Text":"and these include mitochondria and singular mitochondrion."},{"Start":"08:41.195 ","End":"08:44.210","Text":"These are responsible for metabolic reactions involved in"},{"Start":"08:44.210 ","End":"08:47.570","Text":"energy conversion and production of ATP in the cell."},{"Start":"08:47.570 ","End":"08:51.290","Text":"ATP is an energy storage molecule."},{"Start":"08:51.290 ","End":"08:55.100","Text":"This basically means it\u0027s the sites of cellular respiration and"},{"Start":"08:55.100 ","End":"08:59.030","Text":"metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP,"},{"Start":"08:59.030 ","End":"09:01.520","Text":"a form of energy storage."},{"Start":"09:01.610 ","End":"09:04.760","Text":"As you see here, they\u0027re oval-shaped."},{"Start":"09:04.760 ","End":"09:06.500","Text":"They have an outer membrane."},{"Start":"09:06.500 ","End":"09:08.449","Text":"It\u0027s a double membrane organelle,"},{"Start":"09:08.449 ","End":"09:12.529","Text":"and they have their own ribosomes and DNA."},{"Start":"09:12.529 ","End":"09:14.525","Text":"Now, little tidbit,"},{"Start":"09:14.525 ","End":"09:17.210","Text":"muscle cells have many of these,"},{"Start":"09:17.210 ","End":"09:19.400","Text":"a very high concentration of mitochondria."},{"Start":"09:19.400 ","End":"09:21.770","Text":"This makes sense because"},{"Start":"09:21.770 ","End":"09:26.000","Text":"muscle cells are where you need to have a lot of energy when you work out,"},{"Start":"09:26.000 ","End":"09:29.555","Text":"when you lift, when you do practical things in life."},{"Start":"09:29.555 ","End":"09:33.890","Text":"The second abundant organelle is the peroxisome."},{"Start":"09:33.890 ","End":"09:37.280","Text":"Now the peroxisome is involved in degradation and"},{"Start":"09:37.280 ","End":"09:41.270","Text":"clearance of macromolecules brought into the cell from the outside."},{"Start":"09:41.270 ","End":"09:45.230","Text":"They carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and"},{"Start":"09:45.230 ","End":"09:51.065","Text":"amino acids and detoxify many poisons that may enter the body."},{"Start":"09:51.065 ","End":"09:54.650","Text":"Here you see the peroxisomes."},{"Start":"09:54.650 ","End":"09:57.358","Text":"We also have the lysosomes,"},{"Start":"09:57.358 ","End":"10:01.775","Text":"and you see them here that have similar function to peroxisomes."},{"Start":"10:01.775 ","End":"10:04.385","Text":"They also are similar in size."},{"Start":"10:04.385 ","End":"10:08.600","Text":"Now they differ from each other in the type of enzyme they hold."},{"Start":"10:08.600 ","End":"10:13.670","Text":"Peroxisomes hold onto enzymes that require oxygen, oxidative enzymes,"},{"Start":"10:13.670 ","End":"10:20.440","Text":"while lysosomes have enzymes that work in oxygen-poor environments and low pH."},{"Start":"10:20.440 ","End":"10:24.415","Text":"Peroxisomes absorb nutrients that the cell has acquired."},{"Start":"10:24.415 ","End":"10:27.625","Text":"These are also called microbodies."},{"Start":"10:27.625 ","End":"10:29.900","Text":"They are about the size of the lysosome,"},{"Start":"10:29.900 ","End":"10:35.295","Text":"which is about 0.5-1 micrometer."},{"Start":"10:35.295 ","End":"10:40.835","Text":"They are similarly enclosed by a simple single membrane."},{"Start":"10:40.835 ","End":"10:46.130","Text":"They also resemble the lysosomes in being filled with enzymes."},{"Start":"10:46.130 ","End":"10:48.470","Text":"Just a side note,"},{"Start":"10:48.470 ","End":"10:51.290","Text":"plant cells also have chloroplasts."},{"Start":"10:51.290 ","End":"10:55.910","Text":"These are organelles that convert light energy into chemical energy and"},{"Start":"10:55.910 ","End":"10:58.490","Text":"very large membrane-bound vacuoles that store"},{"Start":"10:58.490 ","End":"11:02.505","Text":"metabolites and are functionally similar to lysosomes."},{"Start":"11:02.505 ","End":"11:07.400","Text":"These are chloroplasts and these are found in plant cells."},{"Start":"11:07.400 ","End":"11:10.541","Text":"You can see here the chloroplast,"},{"Start":"11:10.541 ","End":"11:17.090","Text":"it also has a membrane and its own ribosomes and DNA."},{"Start":"11:17.090 ","End":"11:20.885","Text":"Now we completed Part 3 of cellular architecture."},{"Start":"11:20.885 ","End":"11:26.000","Text":"We have covered the cellular architecture including structural features and"},{"Start":"11:26.000 ","End":"11:28.460","Text":"functional features and we can move on to test"},{"Start":"11:28.460 ","End":"11:32.100","Text":"your knowledge within the exercises. Thanks."}],"ID":27001},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 5","Duration":"6m 9s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25683,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.080 ","End":"00:06.940","Text":"Hey, so let\u0027s test our knowledge on the Cellular Architecture with this exercise."},{"Start":"00:06.950 ","End":"00:10.590","Text":"This exercise has 2 sections, 2 parts."},{"Start":"00:10.590 ","End":"00:12.045","Text":"Let\u0027s start with Part A."},{"Start":"00:12.045 ","End":"00:14.175","Text":"Given the following statement,"},{"Start":"00:14.175 ","End":"00:16.365","Text":"determine which one is true."},{"Start":"00:16.365 ","End":"00:20.205","Text":"We want to see which one of our options is true."},{"Start":"00:20.205 ","End":"00:21.935","Text":"A plasmid, A,"},{"Start":"00:21.935 ","End":"00:24.612","Text":"is circular DNA found in eukaryotes,"},{"Start":"00:24.612 ","End":"00:27.310","Text":"a plasmid, B,"},{"Start":"00:27.310 ","End":"00:31.470","Text":"cannot replicate independently of the chromosome, C,"},{"Start":"00:31.470 ","End":"00:35.635","Text":"a plasmid allows for lateral transfer of genetic information,"},{"Start":"00:35.635 ","End":"00:40.060","Text":"and D, a plasmid is found in one type of bacteria."},{"Start":"00:40.060 ","End":"00:45.825","Text":"Let\u0027s go over what we\u0027ve covered one part at a time."},{"Start":"00:45.825 ","End":"00:49.910","Text":"A, a plasmid is circular DNA found in eukaryotes."},{"Start":"00:49.910 ","End":"00:52.970","Text":"Well, a plasmid is circular DNA,"},{"Start":"00:52.970 ","End":"00:58.100","Text":"but it is found in bacteria which are types of prokaryotes,"},{"Start":"00:58.100 ","End":"01:02.120","Text":"or we can say bacteria."},{"Start":"01:02.120 ","End":"01:08.225","Text":"A plasmid is circular DNA found in prokaryotes or found in bacteria."},{"Start":"01:08.225 ","End":"01:13.745","Text":"Eukaryotes have DNA that is actually linear."},{"Start":"01:13.745 ","End":"01:18.080","Text":"We know that this one isn\u0027t true."},{"Start":"01:18.080 ","End":"01:19.670","Text":"Let\u0027s move on. B,"},{"Start":"01:19.670 ","End":"01:24.095","Text":"a plasmid cannot replicate independently of the chromosome."},{"Start":"01:24.095 ","End":"01:25.510","Text":"Well, if you remember,"},{"Start":"01:25.510 ","End":"01:31.265","Text":"a plasmid is actually genetic material that is separate from the chromosome."},{"Start":"01:31.265 ","End":"01:35.030","Text":"This may be a little confusing because a plasmid is found in"},{"Start":"01:35.030 ","End":"01:38.750","Text":"bacteria in which their chromosome is also circular,"},{"Start":"01:38.750 ","End":"01:41.180","Text":"but they are different."},{"Start":"01:41.180 ","End":"01:45.200","Text":"Therefore, this is incorrect because"},{"Start":"01:45.200 ","End":"01:50.200","Text":"a plasmid can replicate independently of the chromosome,"},{"Start":"01:50.200 ","End":"01:54.110","Text":"so B is not true and therefore, it\u0027s not our answer."},{"Start":"01:54.110 ","End":"01:56.840","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to C. A plasmid allows for"},{"Start":"01:56.840 ","End":"02:01.025","Text":"lateral transfer of genetic information. What does this mean?"},{"Start":"02:01.025 ","End":"02:05.810","Text":"Now remember, if we\u0027re talking about a bacterial cell and I\u0027ll say bacteria A,"},{"Start":"02:05.810 ","End":"02:10.300","Text":"and it has a chromosome,"},{"Start":"02:10.300 ","End":"02:14.860","Text":"but it also has a plasmid, they\u0027re both circular."},{"Start":"02:14.860 ","End":"02:20.950","Text":"Now, with regular reproduction or proliferation of bacteria,"},{"Start":"02:20.950 ","End":"02:24.235","Text":"what happens is the bacterial cell will split into"},{"Start":"02:24.235 ","End":"02:28.540","Text":"two and it goes through an entire process and when it splits into two,"},{"Start":"02:28.540 ","End":"02:36.190","Text":"it\u0027s actually creating two identical copies in which the chromosome also is replicated,"},{"Start":"02:36.190 ","End":"02:44.355","Text":"it\u0027s copied so that each cell of the next generation of bacteria has the same chromosome."},{"Start":"02:44.355 ","End":"02:47.080","Text":"This now is basically,"},{"Start":"02:47.080 ","End":"02:52.060","Text":"we can say bacteria A-2 and"},{"Start":"02:52.060 ","End":"02:57.060","Text":"bacteria A-2 prime because"},{"Start":"02:57.060 ","End":"03:01.515","Text":"there are two copies and they\u0027re the second generation of this bacteria."},{"Start":"03:01.515 ","End":"03:03.350","Text":"On the other hand,"},{"Start":"03:03.350 ","End":"03:08.495","Text":"the plasmid will transfer maybe to one of them."},{"Start":"03:08.495 ","End":"03:13.100","Text":"Now the other option is that this bacteria A,"},{"Start":"03:13.100 ","End":"03:16.940","Text":"meets up with another bacteria and connects with it,"},{"Start":"03:16.940 ","End":"03:21.350","Text":"and you have this other bacteria,"},{"Start":"03:21.350 ","End":"03:23.750","Text":"and I\u0027ll call it bacteria B."},{"Start":"03:23.750 ","End":"03:28.430","Text":"Upon connection, you have bacteria with its chromosome."},{"Start":"03:28.430 ","End":"03:32.060","Text":"They actually can connect and form this channel"},{"Start":"03:32.060 ","End":"03:39.295","Text":"where this plasmid can actually transfer to bacteria B."},{"Start":"03:39.295 ","End":"03:43.880","Text":"This plasmid can move over here,"},{"Start":"03:43.880 ","End":"03:46.640","Text":"and now the plasmid is in bacteria B,"},{"Start":"03:46.640 ","End":"03:49.805","Text":"and that is considered lateral transfer."},{"Start":"03:49.805 ","End":"03:52.550","Text":"It moved from one bacteria to"},{"Start":"03:52.550 ","End":"03:57.860","Text":"the second bacteria without actually having another generation,"},{"Start":"03:57.860 ","End":"04:03.975","Text":"without going through a split of the cell into two other cells."},{"Start":"04:03.975 ","End":"04:08.220","Text":"This means that C is actually true."},{"Start":"04:08.220 ","End":"04:12.235","Text":"A plasmid allows for lateral transfer of genetic information."},{"Start":"04:12.235 ","End":"04:13.960","Text":"But before we decide,"},{"Start":"04:13.960 ","End":"04:16.220","Text":"let\u0027s go over D as well."},{"Start":"04:16.220 ","End":"04:19.240","Text":"A plasmid is found in one type of bacteria."},{"Start":"04:19.240 ","End":"04:22.225","Text":"Well, we said a plasmid is found in bacteria,"},{"Start":"04:22.225 ","End":"04:28.040","Text":"but it\u0027s actually found in several types of bacteria."},{"Start":"04:28.880 ","End":"04:36.625","Text":"This one is also incorrect and that leaves us with C as the correct answer."},{"Start":"04:36.625 ","End":"04:42.070","Text":"A plasmid allows for lateral transfer of genetic information."},{"Start":"04:42.070 ","End":"04:44.975","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to Part B."},{"Start":"04:44.975 ","End":"04:48.730","Text":"For the statements of Part A that are incorrect,"},{"Start":"04:48.730 ","End":"04:52.510","Text":"please correct the sentence so that it is true."},{"Start":"04:52.720 ","End":"04:56.255","Text":"I\u0027m not going to read all of them and we\u0027re going to go one-by-one."},{"Start":"04:56.255 ","End":"05:00.455","Text":"A, a plasmid is circular DNA found in eukaryotes."},{"Start":"05:00.455 ","End":"05:03.665","Text":"Well, we already established it\u0027s not found in eukaryotes,"},{"Start":"05:03.665 ","End":"05:08.489","Text":"it\u0027s actually found in prokaryotes, actually in bacteria."},{"Start":"05:09.220 ","End":"05:16.385","Text":"A plasmid is circular DNA found in bacteria that are a type of prokaryotes."},{"Start":"05:16.385 ","End":"05:20.660","Text":"B, this we also deemed incorrect,"},{"Start":"05:20.660 ","End":"05:25.055","Text":"so a plasmid cannot replicate independently of the chromosome."},{"Start":"05:25.055 ","End":"05:30.485","Text":"We actually said that it can and does replicate independently of the chromosome thus,"},{"Start":"05:30.485 ","End":"05:33.305","Text":"we can correct this sentence by saying,"},{"Start":"05:33.305 ","End":"05:37.130","Text":"a plasmid replicates independently of the chromosome."},{"Start":"05:37.130 ","End":"05:39.410","Text":"Now C, if you recall,"},{"Start":"05:39.410 ","End":"05:41.030","Text":"was the one that we said is true,"},{"Start":"05:41.030 ","End":"05:42.140","Text":"so this one\u0027s easy,"},{"Start":"05:42.140 ","End":"05:43.790","Text":"we leave it as it is."},{"Start":"05:43.790 ","End":"05:47.690","Text":"A plasmid allows for lateral transfer of genetic information."},{"Start":"05:47.690 ","End":"05:49.490","Text":"Now we go down to D,"},{"Start":"05:49.490 ","End":"05:52.190","Text":"a plasmid is found in one type of bacteria."},{"Start":"05:52.190 ","End":"05:55.020","Text":"We already said it\u0027s found in several types of bacteria,"},{"Start":"05:55.020 ","End":"05:56.750","Text":"so we can correct this and say,"},{"Start":"05:56.750 ","End":"06:00.440","Text":"a plasmid is found in several types of bacteria."},{"Start":"06:00.440 ","End":"06:03.560","Text":"That completes our exercise and hopefully you"},{"Start":"06:03.560 ","End":"06:06.785","Text":"understood everything we went through and you got it all correct."},{"Start":"06:06.785 ","End":"06:10.260","Text":"Thanks and let\u0027s see you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27002},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 6","Duration":"7m 12s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25684,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:05.610","Text":"Hi there. Here we\u0027re going to review the information and the knowledge we gain in"},{"Start":"00:05.610 ","End":"00:12.550","Text":"the section covering the cellular architecture within the cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:13.580 ","End":"00:16.560","Text":"Define the following terms,"},{"Start":"00:16.560 ","End":"00:19.155","Text":"A, plasma membrane, B,"},{"Start":"00:19.155 ","End":"00:26.040","Text":"cytoplasm, C, nucleus versus nucleoli, and D, cytoskeleton."},{"Start":"00:26.040 ","End":"00:28.230","Text":"Let\u0027s start with the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"00:28.230 ","End":"00:30.885","Text":"What did we cover about the plasma membrane?"},{"Start":"00:30.885 ","End":"00:34.140","Text":"It\u0027s composed of lipid and protein molecules that form"},{"Start":"00:34.140 ","End":"00:38.240","Text":"a flexible hydrophobic barrier around the cell,"},{"Start":"00:38.240 ","End":"00:41.970","Text":"separating its contents from the surrounding."},{"Start":"00:42.760 ","End":"00:48.755","Text":"We have different lipids and proteins within the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"00:48.755 ","End":"00:53.870","Text":"We talked about the plasma membrane being a lipid bi-layer,"},{"Start":"00:53.870 ","End":"00:55.950","Text":"an actual phospholipid bi-layer."},{"Start":"00:55.950 ","End":"00:58.040","Text":"This is what we see here."},{"Start":"00:58.040 ","End":"01:01.010","Text":"Phospho like the phosphate head and lipid,"},{"Start":"01:01.010 ","End":"01:03.515","Text":"the two fatty chains,"},{"Start":"01:03.515 ","End":"01:07.235","Text":"which have characteristics that are somewhat different."},{"Start":"01:07.235 ","End":"01:11.075","Text":"You have the phosphate head,"},{"Start":"01:11.075 ","End":"01:17.450","Text":"which is hydrophilic, meaning it gets along with water, it likes water."},{"Start":"01:17.450 ","End":"01:21.445","Text":"You have a fatty chains that are hydrophobic."},{"Start":"01:21.445 ","End":"01:26.780","Text":"We basically have a layer with the blue heads on"},{"Start":"01:26.780 ","End":"01:32.360","Text":"the outside that is okay with water and blue heads on the inside that\u0027s okay with water."},{"Start":"01:32.360 ","End":"01:37.250","Text":"This is the phospholipid bi-layer and the fatty chains,"},{"Start":"01:37.250 ","End":"01:40.220","Text":"the lipid chains are on the inside,"},{"Start":"01:40.220 ","End":"01:41.650","Text":"they interact with each other."},{"Start":"01:41.650 ","End":"01:46.640","Text":"This is the hydrophobic section which doesn\u0027t like to interact with water."},{"Start":"01:46.640 ","End":"01:52.775","Text":"This is basically the arrangement that allows to keep the aqueous solution from"},{"Start":"01:52.775 ","End":"01:59.420","Text":"either side of this bi-layer separated to not mix."},{"Start":"01:59.420 ","End":"02:03.830","Text":"This is the membrane that actually allows,"},{"Start":"02:03.830 ","End":"02:06.770","Text":"enables for this separation."},{"Start":"02:06.770 ","End":"02:12.240","Text":"This is the actual plasma membrane on the cell in the outside."},{"Start":"02:12.240 ","End":"02:14.295","Text":"This is a zoom in of it."},{"Start":"02:14.295 ","End":"02:16.340","Text":"If we zoom in close,"},{"Start":"02:16.340 ","End":"02:18.620","Text":"I was actually just looking at it,"},{"Start":"02:18.620 ","End":"02:20.585","Text":"you see this is the membrane."},{"Start":"02:20.585 ","End":"02:22.970","Text":"Then zooming that in, enlarging it,"},{"Start":"02:22.970 ","End":"02:26.030","Text":"you see now this bigger section,"},{"Start":"02:26.030 ","End":"02:29.135","Text":"this bigger portion with the phospholipids."},{"Start":"02:29.135 ","End":"02:32.495","Text":"Then here it\u0027s zooming in some more."},{"Start":"02:32.495 ","End":"02:35.600","Text":"Now we also know that there are pores that"},{"Start":"02:35.600 ","End":"02:40.280","Text":"allow several things to move in and out of the cells."},{"Start":"02:40.280 ","End":"02:43.220","Text":"For example, nutrients to move in and for"},{"Start":"02:43.220 ","End":"02:47.530","Text":"toxins or waste to move out and it\u0027s very selective."},{"Start":"02:47.530 ","End":"02:53.465","Text":"You have these pores that allow things to go in and out of the cell."},{"Start":"02:53.465 ","End":"02:56.195","Text":"Let\u0027s move to the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"02:56.195 ","End":"03:00.710","Text":"The cytoplasm includes an aqueous solution, the cytosol,"},{"Start":"03:00.710 ","End":"03:06.275","Text":"and various particles that have specific functions all enclosed by the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"03:06.275 ","End":"03:11.360","Text":"The cytoplasm is the aqueous solution that\u0027s within the cell."},{"Start":"03:11.360 ","End":"03:14.345","Text":"It\u0027s different from what\u0027s outside of the cell,"},{"Start":"03:14.345 ","End":"03:16.085","Text":"from what\u0027s in-between cells."},{"Start":"03:16.085 ","End":"03:19.100","Text":"The cytoplasm is this material,"},{"Start":"03:19.100 ","End":"03:21.800","Text":"this water-based solution that\u0027s inside the cell that\u0027s"},{"Start":"03:21.800 ","End":"03:24.785","Text":"contained by the plasma membrane and as we said,"},{"Start":"03:24.785 ","End":"03:27.230","Text":"because of its hydrophobic features,"},{"Start":"03:27.230 ","End":"03:33.000","Text":"doesn\u0027t allow for this cytoplasm to just spill out of the cell."},{"Start":"03:33.910 ","End":"03:38.150","Text":"Now let\u0027s talk about the nucleus versus nucleoli."},{"Start":"03:38.150 ","End":"03:41.060","Text":"The nucleus, as we see here,"},{"Start":"03:41.060 ","End":"03:43.790","Text":"is where the eukaryotes\u0027 genome,"},{"Start":"03:43.790 ","End":"03:47.930","Text":"its genetic material, the DNA is found and replicates."},{"Start":"03:47.930 ","End":"03:54.275","Text":"It is enclosed within the nuclear envelope and contains region called the nucleolus,"},{"Start":"03:54.275 ","End":"03:57.060","Text":"which is where ribosomes are assembled."},{"Start":"03:57.060 ","End":"04:00.694","Text":"If you remember, ribosomes are what synthesized proteins."},{"Start":"04:00.694 ","End":"04:03.200","Text":"If we look at our nucleus,"},{"Start":"04:03.200 ","End":"04:06.005","Text":"this is in eukaryotic cells,"},{"Start":"04:06.005 ","End":"04:11.195","Text":"there is the nuclear envelope that is similar to the plasma membrane,"},{"Start":"04:11.195 ","End":"04:16.670","Text":"that it also separates the actual aqueous solution that\u0027s"},{"Start":"04:16.670 ","End":"04:23.432","Text":"within the nucleus and the cytoplasm that\u0027s outside of the nucleus,"},{"Start":"04:23.432 ","End":"04:26.525","Text":"yet within the plasma membrane of the cell."},{"Start":"04:26.525 ","End":"04:30.379","Text":"Within the nucleus you have the nucleoplasm that\u0027s separated"},{"Start":"04:30.379 ","End":"04:33.890","Text":"from the cytoplasm that is in the outside."},{"Start":"04:33.890 ","End":"04:37.460","Text":"The cytoplasm is outside the nucleus."},{"Start":"04:37.460 ","End":"04:41.630","Text":"It\u0027s surrounds it all within the eukaryotic cell."},{"Start":"04:41.630 ","End":"04:44.420","Text":"Now, the nuclear envelope,"},{"Start":"04:44.420 ","End":"04:47.450","Text":"similar to the plasma membrane,"},{"Start":"04:47.450 ","End":"04:52.415","Text":"also has pores to allow things to enter and exit the nucleus,"},{"Start":"04:52.415 ","End":"04:56.750","Text":"which is quite important because you have proteins that are"},{"Start":"04:56.750 ","End":"05:01.160","Text":"assembled by the ribosomes in the nucleolus."},{"Start":"05:01.160 ","End":"05:03.695","Text":"This is the nucleolus,"},{"Start":"05:03.695 ","End":"05:09.319","Text":"and they need to now leave outside and function within the cell but outside the nucleus,"},{"Start":"05:09.319 ","End":"05:14.750","Text":"so they need to exit from the pores to the cytoplasm,"},{"Start":"05:14.750 ","End":"05:17.300","Text":"to the rest of the cell."},{"Start":"05:17.300 ","End":"05:23.990","Text":"Now the nucleoid is found in prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea,"},{"Start":"05:23.990 ","End":"05:27.080","Text":"which are the 2 types of prokaryotes there are"},{"Start":"05:27.080 ","End":"05:31.075","Text":"and is not separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane."},{"Start":"05:31.075 ","End":"05:33.080","Text":"It has its own area."},{"Start":"05:33.080 ","End":"05:38.690","Text":"The nucleoid is found in a very specific area in the prokaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"05:38.690 ","End":"05:41.660","Text":"but it\u0027s not separated by a membrane."},{"Start":"05:41.660 ","End":"05:44.765","Text":"Now let\u0027s move on to the cytoskeleton."},{"Start":"05:44.765 ","End":"05:49.190","Text":"The cytoskeleton, if you look at this term reminder,"},{"Start":"05:49.190 ","End":"05:50.645","Text":"just like in our body,"},{"Start":"05:50.645 ","End":"05:54.980","Text":"it holds our structure together, defines our arrangement."},{"Start":"05:54.980 ","End":"05:57.095","Text":"The cytoskeleton is the same."},{"Start":"05:57.095 ","End":"05:59.210","Text":"The cytoskeleton is a network of"},{"Start":"05:59.210 ","End":"06:03.095","Text":"intracellular filaments consisting of protein assemblies."},{"Start":"06:03.095 ","End":"06:07.355","Text":"These proteins build these filaments that maintains the cell structure."},{"Start":"06:07.355 ","End":"06:13.245","Text":"Here you see filaments of the cytoskeleton are these gray filaments, these gray lines."},{"Start":"06:13.245 ","End":"06:17.210","Text":"These are really what hold the cell"},{"Start":"06:17.210 ","End":"06:20.950","Text":"together and allow for a certain arrangement within the cell."},{"Start":"06:20.950 ","End":"06:24.800","Text":"They span from the plasma membrane to the nucleus."},{"Start":"06:24.800 ","End":"06:29.300","Text":"Now, this had been known to exist in eukaryotes,"},{"Start":"06:29.300 ","End":"06:33.200","Text":"but only since around the 1990s has it been"},{"Start":"06:33.200 ","End":"06:37.700","Text":"established that prokaryotes also have a cytoskeleton,"},{"Start":"06:37.700 ","End":"06:40.820","Text":"the equivalent bacterial proteins to"},{"Start":"06:40.820 ","End":"06:46.160","Text":"the eukaryotic cytoskeleton proteins had been found and visualized."},{"Start":"06:46.160 ","End":"06:50.600","Text":"Now, these not only are responsible for the structure,"},{"Start":"06:50.600 ","End":"06:56.480","Text":"they also allow movement of organelles along these structures,"},{"Start":"06:56.480 ","End":"06:59.945","Text":"along these filaments, which is super important for the cell"},{"Start":"06:59.945 ","End":"07:04.400","Text":"and it\u0027s very highly and tightly regulated by other proteins."},{"Start":"07:04.400 ","End":"07:07.250","Text":"From here, we basically completed"},{"Start":"07:07.250 ","End":"07:12.090","Text":"the exercise and hopefully everything was clear. Thanks for joining."}],"ID":27003},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Three Distinct Domains part 1","Duration":"11m 1s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26134,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.865","Text":"Hi. Welcome to cellular foundation,"},{"Start":"00:02.865 ","End":"00:06.720","Text":"3 distinct evolutionary domains of life of organisms."},{"Start":"00:06.720 ","End":"00:07.860","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:07.860 ","End":"00:10.050","Text":"you\u0027ll be able to recognize and understand"},{"Start":"00:10.050 ","End":"00:12.240","Text":"a phylogenetic tree and name"},{"Start":"00:12.240 ","End":"00:15.435","Text":"the 3 distinct domains of life and organisms that belong to them."},{"Start":"00:15.435 ","End":"00:18.015","Text":"I\u0027m going to split this to 2 sections."},{"Start":"00:18.015 ","End":"00:24.240","Text":"Part 1, you were more specifically going to go over defining taxonomy,"},{"Start":"00:24.240 ","End":"00:27.480","Text":"recognizing and understanding phylogenetic trees as I said,"},{"Start":"00:27.480 ","End":"00:30.780","Text":"and name the 3 distinct domains of life and organisms that belong to them."},{"Start":"00:30.780 ","End":"00:37.550","Text":"Let\u0027s dive in. Taxonomy. Taxonomy is the science of biological classification,"},{"Start":"00:37.550 ","End":"00:41.585","Text":"and this was largely based on morphology,"},{"Start":"00:41.585 ","End":"00:44.911","Text":"reproductive or developmental strategies."},{"Start":"00:44.911 ","End":"00:48.815","Text":"Morphology means the branch of biology that deals with the form,"},{"Start":"00:48.815 ","End":"00:53.780","Text":"the shape of living organisms and with relationships between their structures."},{"Start":"00:53.780 ","End":"00:56.255","Text":"In other words, this means, let\u0027s say,"},{"Start":"00:56.255 ","End":"00:58.640","Text":"looking at birds, they all look similar."},{"Start":"00:58.640 ","End":"01:01.775","Text":"They have a beak and they have wings and feathers,"},{"Start":"01:01.775 ","End":"01:03.410","Text":"and establishing based on this,"},{"Start":"01:03.410 ","End":"01:08.825","Text":"that these organisms are likely related and came from some common ancestors."},{"Start":"01:08.825 ","End":"01:11.570","Text":"Since then there has been development of techniques"},{"Start":"01:11.570 ","End":"01:14.365","Text":"for determining genetic material sequences,"},{"Start":"01:14.365 ","End":"01:15.880","Text":"for example, RNA or DNA,"},{"Start":"01:15.880 ","End":"01:20.210","Text":"and this has enabled deduction of evolutionary relationships between organisms."},{"Start":"01:20.210 ","End":"01:23.630","Text":"This means that looking at the RNA or"},{"Start":"01:23.630 ","End":"01:27.260","Text":"DNA of organisms and how similar or how different they are,"},{"Start":"01:27.260 ","End":"01:32.690","Text":"establishing how these are related with regard to evolutionary relationships."},{"Start":"01:32.690 ","End":"01:34.550","Text":"Again, looking at,"},{"Start":"01:34.550 ","End":"01:35.930","Text":"for example, the birds,"},{"Start":"01:35.930 ","End":"01:40.190","Text":"you would assume and in truth that is what we see,"},{"Start":"01:40.190 ","End":"01:43.220","Text":"that there is some similarity in their genetics"},{"Start":"01:43.220 ","End":"01:50.330","Text":"that basically code for their wings and feathers and these similar beaks that they have."},{"Start":"01:50.330 ","End":"01:58.535","Text":"This has been used to basically realize that they have come from a common ancestor."},{"Start":"01:58.535 ","End":"01:59.930","Text":"In this illustration,"},{"Start":"01:59.930 ","End":"02:03.515","Text":"you\u0027re just looking at the origin of life and how it\u0027s evolved,"},{"Start":"02:03.515 ","End":"02:07.475","Text":"and you see microorganisms and fungi and plants,"},{"Start":"02:07.475 ","End":"02:09.650","Text":"and they\u0027re all different from each other,"},{"Start":"02:09.650 ","End":"02:12.230","Text":"and you have animals and they\u0027ve all evolved separately."},{"Start":"02:12.230 ","End":"02:13.640","Text":"But then when you look, for example,"},{"Start":"02:13.640 ","End":"02:15.840","Text":"animals, there\u0027s a separation here."},{"Start":"02:15.840 ","End":"02:18.950","Text":"You\u0027d say, \"These don\u0027t look like these ones.\""},{"Start":"02:18.950 ","End":"02:22.415","Text":"You have birds that would group together and cluster together."},{"Start":"02:22.415 ","End":"02:26.570","Text":"Reptiles, animals that have 2 ears and 2 eyes and 4 legs,"},{"Start":"02:26.570 ","End":"02:28.235","Text":"and they may cluster together."},{"Start":"02:28.235 ","End":"02:31.190","Text":"This is just a easy on the eyes figure,"},{"Start":"02:31.190 ","End":"02:32.330","Text":"but we will get into"},{"Start":"02:32.330 ","End":"02:37.750","Text":"the more scientific-based illustration of these relationships as we go along."},{"Start":"02:37.750 ","End":"02:41.750","Text":"The phylogenetic relationships is using genetics,"},{"Start":"02:41.750 ","End":"02:43.790","Text":"as you could see in the term phylogenetic,"},{"Start":"02:43.790 ","End":"02:46.955","Text":"to establish the history of the evolution of a species or group,"},{"Start":"02:46.955 ","End":"02:49.460","Text":"especially in reference to line of descent and"},{"Start":"02:49.460 ","End":"02:52.895","Text":"relationships among broad groups of organisms."},{"Start":"02:52.895 ","End":"02:59.960","Text":"Again, it\u0027s saying these groups of organisms have some similarity in their sequences,"},{"Start":"02:59.960 ","End":"03:03.860","Text":"and it means that they\u0027ve come from a common ancestor,"},{"Start":"03:03.860 ","End":"03:08.990","Text":"and these have a lot of differences between them yet they all,"},{"Start":"03:08.990 ","End":"03:14.389","Text":"for example, have 4 legs or these have some common ancestor."},{"Start":"03:14.389 ","End":"03:16.190","Text":"They have 4 legs versus 2 legs,"},{"Start":"03:16.190 ","End":"03:18.590","Text":"but they all have 2 ears and 2 eyes."},{"Start":"03:18.590 ","End":"03:24.235","Text":"That is how these relationships are established with regard to ancestors."},{"Start":"03:24.235 ","End":"03:29.165","Text":"Similarities between gene sequences provide insight into the course of evolution."},{"Start":"03:29.165 ","End":"03:32.105","Text":"While these have evolved to have 4 legs versus 2 legs,"},{"Start":"03:32.105 ","End":"03:37.520","Text":"that can hint us to the environment in where they\u0027ve evolved and what they\u0027ve exposed to."},{"Start":"03:37.520 ","End":"03:42.590","Text":"Since then there was development that\u0027s commonly used now by Carl Woese,"},{"Start":"03:42.590 ","End":"03:47.720","Text":"who used RNA-based analysis to establish classification."},{"Start":"03:47.720 ","End":"03:54.344","Text":"From this, he was able to derive that organisms can be split into 3 domains,"},{"Start":"03:54.344 ","End":"03:59.720","Text":"3 branches of the evolutionary tree of life that originated from a common progenitor,"},{"Start":"03:59.720 ","End":"04:01.085","Text":"from a common ancestor."},{"Start":"04:01.085 ","End":"04:04.420","Text":"What you see here are the 3 groups,"},{"Start":"04:04.420 ","End":"04:07.425","Text":"and this illustrates the relationship."},{"Start":"04:07.425 ","End":"04:16.010","Text":"These lines actually show that this 2 groups come together at this common ancestor,"},{"Start":"04:16.010 ","End":"04:19.250","Text":"and then these 2 groups come together at the line of"},{"Start":"04:19.250 ","End":"04:23.160","Text":"evolution from this branch off over here."},{"Start":"04:23.160 ","End":"04:28.475","Text":"The lines also signify the length in evolution and time."},{"Start":"04:28.475 ","End":"04:29.945","Text":"If you look here,"},{"Start":"04:29.945 ","End":"04:34.700","Text":"there is a small branch between fungi and plants versus"},{"Start":"04:34.700 ","End":"04:40.805","Text":"animals that have evolved over longer time and became this group."},{"Start":"04:40.805 ","End":"04:44.105","Text":"You have the 2 large groups of prokaryotes."},{"Start":"04:44.105 ","End":"04:48.055","Text":"We\u0027ve covered prokaryotes versus eukaryotes."},{"Start":"04:48.055 ","End":"04:51.080","Text":"Prokaryotes have 2 groups which are"},{"Start":"04:51.080 ","End":"04:53.330","Text":"single-celled microorganisms that can be"},{"Start":"04:53.330 ","End":"04:56.840","Text":"distinguished on genetics and biochemical grounds."},{"Start":"04:56.840 ","End":"05:03.140","Text":"The 2 groups of prokaryotes are the bacteria which are also called eubacteria,"},{"Start":"05:03.140 ","End":"05:05.360","Text":"I think this is more historically-based."},{"Start":"05:05.360 ","End":"05:07.430","Text":"The bacteria, also eubacteria,"},{"Start":"05:07.430 ","End":"05:11.735","Text":"this is synonymous interchangeable and you see it\u0027s this group right here."},{"Start":"05:11.735 ","End":"05:15.440","Text":"You have the archaea which are also called archaebacteria."},{"Start":"05:15.440 ","End":"05:18.680","Text":"You have eubacteria and archaebacteria or bacteria and archaea,"},{"Start":"05:18.680 ","End":"05:20.330","Text":"and you have the bacteria here."},{"Start":"05:20.330 ","End":"05:23.840","Text":"You see that they are in a relationship to each other."},{"Start":"05:23.840 ","End":"05:29.555","Text":"You have this branch that goes from the bacteria and the archaea,"},{"Start":"05:29.555 ","End":"05:31.700","Text":"and they branch off here."},{"Start":"05:31.700 ","End":"05:33.380","Text":"Then you have the third group,"},{"Start":"05:33.380 ","End":"05:36.340","Text":"and these are eukaryotes and they are called Eukarya."},{"Start":"05:36.340 ","End":"05:38.670","Text":"You have this branch off."},{"Start":"05:38.670 ","End":"05:44.090","Text":"What you can see here as the 2 groups of prokaryotes are distantly related,"},{"Start":"05:44.090 ","End":"05:47.885","Text":"you have a branch off for them over here."},{"Start":"05:47.885 ","End":"05:49.670","Text":"On the other hand,"},{"Start":"05:49.670 ","End":"05:53.225","Text":"if you look and compare the branch off to eukaryotes,"},{"Start":"05:53.225 ","End":"05:58.940","Text":"they are distantly related to each other as both groups are related to eukaryotes."},{"Start":"05:58.940 ","End":"06:02.330","Text":"If you look at this branch over here,"},{"Start":"06:02.330 ","End":"06:08.105","Text":"the distance between this branch to archaea or this branch to"},{"Start":"06:08.105 ","End":"06:15.095","Text":"bacteria is basically as distant as when you compare archaea to bacteria."},{"Start":"06:15.095 ","End":"06:18.245","Text":"It means that the evolution,"},{"Start":"06:18.245 ","End":"06:21.005","Text":"even though these are 2 groups of prokaryotes,"},{"Start":"06:21.005 ","End":"06:26.030","Text":"have led to such changes between these 2 groups that it"},{"Start":"06:26.030 ","End":"06:31.970","Text":"is as different when you compare the eukaryotes versus the prokaryotes."},{"Start":"06:31.970 ","End":"06:36.575","Text":"Looking at the pattern of branches in Woese\u0027s diagram,"},{"Start":"06:36.575 ","End":"06:40.850","Text":"it indicates the divergence of different types of organism."},{"Start":"06:40.850 ","End":"06:44.360","Text":"Each branch point represents a common ancestor,"},{"Start":"06:44.360 ","End":"06:46.340","Text":"meaning that each point,"},{"Start":"06:46.340 ","End":"06:50.950","Text":"this is the common ancestor from which evolved all these branches."},{"Start":"06:50.950 ","End":"06:52.580","Text":"If you go up here,"},{"Start":"06:52.580 ","End":"06:54.710","Text":"you have these branching off."},{"Start":"06:54.710 ","End":"06:59.030","Text":"Here is the common ancestor that is for these 3,"},{"Start":"06:59.030 ","End":"07:01.925","Text":"the cyanobacteria, purple bacteria, gram-positive."},{"Start":"07:01.925 ","End":"07:04.910","Text":"If you\u0027re looking here, this branch,"},{"Start":"07:04.910 ","End":"07:08.720","Text":"this is the common ancestor from which evolved only these 2 type of archaea."},{"Start":"07:08.720 ","End":"07:13.670","Text":"Similarly, if you\u0027re looking at I guess this branch right here,"},{"Start":"07:13.670 ","End":"07:18.020","Text":"you\u0027re seeing there is a common ancestor that\u0027s where animals,"},{"Start":"07:18.020 ","End":"07:20.615","Text":"fungi, and plants have evolved from."},{"Start":"07:20.615 ","End":"07:23.540","Text":"The basis for the tree is the similarity and"},{"Start":"07:23.540 ","End":"07:27.485","Text":"nucleotide sequences of the ribosomal RNAs of each group."},{"Start":"07:27.485 ","End":"07:29.389","Text":"The more similar the sequence,"},{"Start":"07:29.389 ","End":"07:31.969","Text":"the closer the location of the branches,"},{"Start":"07:31.969 ","End":"07:34.310","Text":"with a distance between the branches representing"},{"Start":"07:34.310 ","End":"07:37.175","Text":"the degree of difference between 2 sequences."},{"Start":"07:37.175 ","End":"07:40.610","Text":"Again, this is repeating what I had briefly mentioned before."},{"Start":"07:40.610 ","End":"07:45.800","Text":"But when you\u0027re looking at the phylogenetic tree,"},{"Start":"07:45.800 ","End":"07:49.820","Text":"and this tree is very easy in the eyes and it\u0027s actually depicted as a tree,"},{"Start":"07:49.820 ","End":"07:52.890","Text":"what this means is normally what the tree will look like,"},{"Start":"07:52.890 ","End":"07:55.970","Text":"it won\u0027t necessarily be as beautiful as here you\u0027ll see different depictions,"},{"Start":"07:55.970 ","End":"08:00.980","Text":"but the common thing for phylogenetic trees is that you will see these lines,"},{"Start":"08:00.980 ","End":"08:09.820","Text":"these branches of organisms and this will be what\u0027s in common."},{"Start":"08:13.040 ","End":"08:17.105","Text":"Looking at this, you will say"},{"Start":"08:17.105 ","End":"08:21.230","Text":"this is a common ancestor from which all of these have evolved."},{"Start":"08:21.230 ","End":"08:22.790","Text":"Then you\u0027ll look here,"},{"Start":"08:22.790 ","End":"08:27.110","Text":"and here is a common ancestor from where R and Y have evolved"},{"Start":"08:27.110 ","End":"08:31.620","Text":"and here\u0027s a common ancestor from where T and Z have evolved,"},{"Start":"08:31.620 ","End":"08:35.555","Text":"and this is based on the ribosomal RNAs."},{"Start":"08:35.555 ","End":"08:37.835","Text":"We talked about ribosomes previously."},{"Start":"08:37.835 ","End":"08:42.680","Text":"Well, specific RNAs that code for ribosomes is what this is based on,"},{"Start":"08:42.680 ","End":"08:45.845","Text":"this phylogenetic tree by Woese."},{"Start":"08:45.845 ","End":"08:48.110","Text":"If you look at each group,"},{"Start":"08:48.110 ","End":"08:51.110","Text":"the more similar the sequences, the closer they are."},{"Start":"08:51.110 ","End":"08:54.840","Text":"The sequences of R and Y would be close,"},{"Start":"08:54.840 ","End":"08:57.780","Text":"the sequences of T and Z would be close."},{"Start":"08:57.780 ","End":"08:59.520","Text":"When you\u0027re looking R, Y,"},{"Start":"08:59.520 ","End":"09:02.195","Text":"T, Z, and X, well,"},{"Start":"09:02.195 ","End":"09:05.390","Text":"the sequences here are more similar to each other than if you"},{"Start":"09:05.390 ","End":"09:09.800","Text":"look at R versus X and Z versus X."},{"Start":"09:09.800 ","End":"09:13.400","Text":"This distance between the branches also"},{"Start":"09:13.400 ","End":"09:16.800","Text":"represents the degree of difference between the 2 sequences."},{"Start":"09:16.800 ","End":"09:20.660","Text":"This versus this, you have a higher distance, a longer distance."},{"Start":"09:20.660 ","End":"09:22.140","Text":"This versus this,"},{"Start":"09:22.140 ","End":"09:25.930","Text":"so when you compare the distance between these 2 versus,"},{"Start":"09:25.930 ","End":"09:30.080","Text":"let\u0027s just do another one for the sake of comparison,"},{"Start":"09:30.080 ","End":"09:32.270","Text":"the distance between these 2 and you look"},{"Start":"09:32.270 ","End":"09:35.810","Text":"just at the X and S versus R and Y looks similar,"},{"Start":"09:35.810 ","End":"09:39.425","Text":"but you see here the distance of the branch is shorter than here,"},{"Start":"09:39.425 ","End":"09:44.135","Text":"and that means that the evolution was shorter from each other."},{"Start":"09:44.135 ","End":"09:47.480","Text":"Phylogenetic trees can also be constructed from similarities"},{"Start":"09:47.480 ","End":"09:51.335","Text":"across species with the amino acid sequences of a single protein."},{"Start":"09:51.335 ","End":"09:58.475","Text":"Meaning looking at 1 protein in order to create the phylogenetic tree."},{"Start":"09:58.475 ","End":"10:00.290","Text":"This could be very useful."},{"Start":"10:00.290 ","End":"10:03.065","Text":"For example, when you\u0027re looking at closely related organism,"},{"Start":"10:03.065 ","End":"10:06.840","Text":"let\u0027s say humans and mostly were similar to each other,"},{"Start":"10:06.840 ","End":"10:09.170","Text":"and you want to look at a single protein and"},{"Start":"10:09.170 ","End":"10:12.920","Text":"see how this is different between different people,"},{"Start":"10:12.920 ","End":"10:15.170","Text":"and this may relate to where they grew up"},{"Start":"10:15.170 ","End":"10:18.740","Text":"geographically or what they were exposed to in climates."},{"Start":"10:18.740 ","End":"10:21.620","Text":"This is also useful in microbiology."},{"Start":"10:21.620 ","End":"10:24.260","Text":"For example, looking at bacteria or in viruses,"},{"Start":"10:24.260 ","End":"10:26.090","Text":"you want to look at specifically, let\u0027s say,"},{"Start":"10:26.090 ","End":"10:29.210","Text":"envelope viruses at their envelope protein,"},{"Start":"10:29.210 ","End":"10:35.195","Text":"and look just at that and see how they\u0027re similar to each other and what this indicates."},{"Start":"10:35.195 ","End":"10:37.250","Text":"This could be very important, for example,"},{"Start":"10:37.250 ","End":"10:39.560","Text":"for vaccine development or drug development."},{"Start":"10:39.560 ","End":"10:43.895","Text":"This is a very useful tool as well just looking at the single protein level."},{"Start":"10:43.895 ","End":"10:46.900","Text":"With this, we have concluded Part 1"},{"Start":"10:46.900 ","End":"10:49.870","Text":"of 3 distinct evolutionary domains of life of organisms."},{"Start":"10:49.870 ","End":"10:51.560","Text":"By now you should be able to define"},{"Start":"10:51.560 ","End":"10:54.470","Text":"taxonomy and recognize and understand the phylogenetic tree,"},{"Start":"10:54.470 ","End":"10:58.265","Text":"as well as name the 3 distinct domains of life and organisms that belong to them."},{"Start":"10:58.265 ","End":"11:01.200","Text":"I\u0027ll see you back here with Part 2."}],"ID":27004},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Three Distinct Domains part 2","Duration":"6m 47s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26135,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.475","Text":"Hey there, welcome back to Cellular Foundation,"},{"Start":"00:02.475 ","End":"00:05.805","Text":"3 distinct evolutionary domains of life and organisms, Part 2."},{"Start":"00:05.805 ","End":"00:08.580","Text":"Here specifically, by the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:08.580 ","End":"00:11.130","Text":"you\u0027ll be able to recognize and understand a phylogenetic tree and"},{"Start":"00:11.130 ","End":"00:14.490","Text":"its evolutionary significance and name the 3 distinct domains"},{"Start":"00:14.490 ","End":"00:18.645","Text":"of life organisms that belong to them and how they relate to each other."},{"Start":"00:18.645 ","End":"00:22.350","Text":"The 3 domains scheme shows the animals, plants, and fungi,"},{"Start":"00:22.350 ","End":"00:23.745","Text":"which we talked about a lot,"},{"Start":"00:23.745 ","End":"00:26.370","Text":"represent only a small portion of all life forms."},{"Start":"00:26.370 ","End":"00:30.660","Text":"If you look here at this phylogenetic tree and we find animals,"},{"Start":"00:30.660 ","End":"00:31.950","Text":"fungi, and plants here,"},{"Start":"00:31.950 ","End":"00:33.615","Text":"this small little portion,"},{"Start":"00:33.615 ","End":"00:37.670","Text":"they are a small portion of this entire phylogenetic tree,"},{"Start":"00:37.670 ","End":"00:41.600","Text":"even though we tend to think we\u0027re the center of the universe."},{"Start":"00:41.600 ","End":"00:45.140","Text":"Not just gives us a reference as"},{"Start":"00:45.140 ","End":"00:49.055","Text":"to the evolution and the relationships between the different organisms."},{"Start":"00:49.055 ","End":"00:50.970","Text":"Evidence suggests the 2 groups,"},{"Start":"00:50.970 ","End":"00:53.400","Text":"prokaryotes diverged early in evolution and that"},{"Start":"00:53.400 ","End":"00:58.050","Text":"the eukarya evolved from the same branch that gave rise to the archaea."},{"Start":"00:58.540 ","End":"01:01.880","Text":"These were considered to evolved earlier in evolution."},{"Start":"01:01.880 ","End":"01:04.685","Text":"You see this branch at least say eukarya is longer,"},{"Start":"01:04.685 ","End":"01:06.515","Text":"so the life evolution here\u0027s longer."},{"Start":"01:06.515 ","End":"01:07.940","Text":"Yet at the same time,"},{"Start":"01:07.940 ","End":"01:11.780","Text":"if you\u0027re looking eukarya and archaea evolved from the same branch,"},{"Start":"01:11.780 ","End":"01:14.435","Text":"that branches off from bacteria."},{"Start":"01:14.435 ","End":"01:16.715","Text":"If you have a common organism here,"},{"Start":"01:16.715 ","End":"01:18.960","Text":"this is where bacteria have evolved,"},{"Start":"01:18.960 ","End":"01:22.445","Text":"then you have an organism that evolved here and"},{"Start":"01:22.445 ","End":"01:27.280","Text":"then it branched off to this split between archaea and eukarya."},{"Start":"01:27.280 ","End":"01:32.225","Text":"Eukarya are therefore more closely related to archaea than bacteria."},{"Start":"01:32.225 ","End":"01:38.015","Text":"These 2 are more closely related than if you compare eukarya to bacteria."},{"Start":"01:38.015 ","End":"01:41.765","Text":"Eukaryotes likely evolved from the association of archaebacteria,"},{"Start":"01:41.765 ","End":"01:48.380","Text":"new bacterial cells, meaning from archaea and bacterial cells."},{"Start":"01:48.380 ","End":"01:53.450","Text":"This evolution, this association has different evidence,"},{"Start":"01:53.450 ","End":"01:54.950","Text":"different hints to show that."},{"Start":"01:54.950 ","End":"01:57.260","Text":"If you\u0027re looking at bacteria, as we said,"},{"Start":"01:57.260 ","End":"01:58.700","Text":"also called eubacteria, and archaea,"},{"Start":"01:58.700 ","End":"02:00.490","Text":"also called archaea,"},{"Start":"02:00.490 ","End":"02:07.760","Text":"they somehow have things that are similar within them and that are similar in eukaryotes."},{"Start":"02:07.760 ","End":"02:11.180","Text":"If you look at mitochondria and chloroplasts of modern eukaryotic cells,"},{"Start":"02:11.180 ","End":"02:13.985","Text":"they resemble bacteria in size and shape,"},{"Start":"02:13.985 ","End":"02:15.980","Text":"and both types of organelle contain"},{"Start":"02:15.980 ","End":"02:19.040","Text":"their own genetic material and protein synthetic machinery,"},{"Start":"02:19.040 ","End":"02:21.320","Text":"meaning that they could\u0027ve been independent,"},{"Start":"02:21.320 ","End":"02:25.595","Text":"meaning that they could\u0027ve been some bacteria on their own."},{"Start":"02:25.595 ","End":"02:28.790","Text":"If you look at mitochondrion, singular versus plural,"},{"Start":"02:28.790 ","End":"02:30.830","Text":"if we look at mitochondria,"},{"Start":"02:30.830 ","End":"02:33.645","Text":"you have this organelle,"},{"Start":"02:33.645 ","End":"02:36.230","Text":"that this could\u0027ve been on its own,"},{"Start":"02:36.230 ","End":"02:38.440","Text":"a functioning prokaryote,"},{"Start":"02:38.440 ","End":"02:40.405","Text":"and it has an outer membrane,"},{"Start":"02:40.405 ","End":"02:44.765","Text":"and the intermembrane space, you have DNA,"},{"Start":"02:44.765 ","End":"02:47.360","Text":"inner membrane, a matrix,"},{"Start":"02:47.360 ","End":"02:49.220","Text":"and they\u0027re similar in their shape,"},{"Start":"02:49.220 ","End":"02:51.230","Text":"the rod-like shape to the rod shape."},{"Start":"02:51.230 ","End":"02:58.290","Text":"That is one of the 3 common forms of bacteria prokaryotes."},{"Start":"02:58.290 ","End":"03:00.350","Text":"If you look at the chloroplast, similarly,"},{"Start":"03:00.350 ","End":"03:02.225","Text":"you have an inner and outer membrane,"},{"Start":"03:02.225 ","End":"03:04.145","Text":"the inner membrane space,"},{"Start":"03:04.145 ","End":"03:06.380","Text":"you have ribosomes and DNA,"},{"Start":"03:06.380 ","End":"03:08.930","Text":"and they have this spheroidal,"},{"Start":"03:08.930 ","End":"03:11.190","Text":"this sphere shaped like the cocci,"},{"Start":"03:11.190 ","End":"03:15.205","Text":"like the bacteria, the prokaryotes that we\u0027ve talked about."},{"Start":"03:15.205 ","End":"03:18.300","Text":"Looking at these 2 organelles,"},{"Start":"03:18.300 ","End":"03:21.350","Text":"it was thus proposed by Lynn Margulis that mitochondria and"},{"Start":"03:21.350 ","End":"03:24.605","Text":"chloroplasts evolved from free-living eubacteria,"},{"Start":"03:24.605 ","End":"03:28.370","Text":"and that they formed a symbiotic mutually beneficial relationship"},{"Start":"03:28.370 ","End":"03:31.220","Text":"that these 2 were forms of bacteria."},{"Start":"03:31.220 ","End":"03:38.120","Text":"They had a symbiotic relationship that combine with a primordial eukaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"03:38.120 ","End":"03:41.750","Text":"an ancestral, a more ancient eukaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"03:41.750 ","End":"03:46.715","Text":"and then they\u0027ve evolved in this relationship to now become one."},{"Start":"03:46.715 ","End":"03:49.730","Text":"Then when you look at certain eukaryotes that lack"},{"Start":"03:49.730 ","End":"03:53.750","Text":"mitochondria or chloroplasts permanently harbor symbiotic bacteria,"},{"Start":"03:53.750 ","End":"03:57.605","Text":"meaning if they don\u0027t have mitochondria or chloroplasts,"},{"Start":"03:57.605 ","End":"04:01.310","Text":"they need some other form that will"},{"Start":"04:01.310 ","End":"04:05.170","Text":"provide the function that mitochondria or chloroplasts have,"},{"Start":"04:05.170 ","End":"04:11.225","Text":"and this is provided by bacteria that live in symbiosis with these eukaryotes."},{"Start":"04:11.225 ","End":"04:13.345","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about archaea."},{"Start":"04:13.345 ","End":"04:18.030","Text":"They include organisms that inhabit in extreme environments or have unique abilities."},{"Start":"04:18.030 ","End":"04:22.970","Text":"We had mentioned the prokaryotes have the ability to live in extreme environments."},{"Start":"04:22.970 ","End":"04:24.830","Text":"You have the methanogens,"},{"Start":"04:24.830 ","End":"04:28.070","Text":"as you can see basically in here,"},{"Start":"04:28.070 ","End":"04:31.025","Text":"and these are organisms that produce methane."},{"Start":"04:31.025 ","End":"04:32.990","Text":"You have halobacteria,"},{"Start":"04:32.990 ","End":"04:37.055","Text":"organisms that thrive in concentrated brine solutions."},{"Start":"04:37.055 ","End":"04:40.995","Text":"We consider know the term brine from pickles,"},{"Start":"04:40.995 ","End":"04:47.210","Text":"so it\u0027s a highly extreme pH environment."},{"Start":"04:47.210 ","End":"04:50.810","Text":"We have thermophiles, organisms that inhabit hot springs,"},{"Start":"04:50.810 ","End":"04:55.595","Text":"so they can survive in the very high temperatures of hot springs,"},{"Start":"04:55.595 ","End":"04:57.755","Text":"and there are those that inhabit salt lakes,"},{"Start":"04:57.755 ","End":"05:00.260","Text":"highly acidic bogs and the ocean depths."},{"Start":"05:00.260 ","End":"05:03.590","Text":"They can survive in high saline,"},{"Start":"05:03.590 ","End":"05:05.780","Text":"a high salt environment."},{"Start":"05:05.780 ","End":"05:07.740","Text":"You could see them within the archaea."},{"Start":"05:07.740 ","End":"05:11.680","Text":"The halophiles are basically the halobacteria."},{"Start":"05:11.680 ","End":"05:14.630","Text":"Methanogens are the ones that create methane"},{"Start":"05:14.630 ","End":"05:17.900","Text":"and can survive in environments that are depleted of this."},{"Start":"05:17.900 ","End":"05:24.815","Text":"Thermophiles survive in different extreme temperatures and then the salt."},{"Start":"05:24.815 ","End":"05:26.930","Text":"Now within the domains of archaea and bacteria,"},{"Start":"05:26.930 ","End":"05:29.915","Text":"there are subgroups that are distinguished by their habitats."},{"Start":"05:29.915 ","End":"05:34.430","Text":"Organisms that live in anaerobic habitats with plentiful supply of oxygen."},{"Start":"05:34.430 ","End":"05:36.260","Text":"We\u0027ve mentioned this before."},{"Start":"05:36.260 ","End":"05:42.275","Text":"They need to have this oxygen environment in order to survive."},{"Start":"05:42.275 ","End":"05:47.030","Text":"Then you have organisms that live in anaerobic environments which lack oxygen,"},{"Start":"05:47.030 ","End":"05:48.530","Text":"are devoid of oxygen,"},{"Start":"05:48.530 ","End":"05:53.570","Text":"and the organisms that evolved in such environments fall into additional 2 groups."},{"Start":"05:53.570 ","End":"05:55.415","Text":"You have the obligate anaerobes."},{"Start":"05:55.415 ","End":"05:59.525","Text":"These are the ones that cannot survive when exposed to oxygen."},{"Start":"05:59.525 ","End":"06:01.655","Text":"They die when exposed to oxygen."},{"Start":"06:01.655 ","End":"06:04.640","Text":"Then you have the facultative anaerobes"},{"Start":"06:04.640 ","End":"06:07.655","Text":"and these are able to live with or without oxygen."},{"Start":"06:07.655 ","End":"06:10.655","Text":"They can either live in an environment without oxygen"},{"Start":"06:10.655 ","End":"06:14.165","Text":"or even if there is oxygen they still survive."},{"Start":"06:14.165 ","End":"06:17.130","Text":"Now we\u0027ve concluded with Cellular Foundation,"},{"Start":"06:17.130 ","End":"06:21.180","Text":"3 distinct evolution domains of life and organisms, Part 2."},{"Start":"06:21.180 ","End":"06:24.860","Text":"By now you should be able to recognize and understand a phylogenetic tree and"},{"Start":"06:24.860 ","End":"06:26.940","Text":"its evolutionary significance and name"},{"Start":"06:26.940 ","End":"06:28.880","Text":"the 3 distinct domains of life organisms"},{"Start":"06:28.880 ","End":"06:31.190","Text":"that belong to them and how they relate to each other."},{"Start":"06:31.190 ","End":"06:37.070","Text":"Stepping back to the section on the entire including all its parts,"},{"Start":"06:37.070 ","End":"06:39.110","Text":"you should be able in general,"},{"Start":"06:39.110 ","End":"06:41.930","Text":"to recognize and understand the phylogenetic tree and name"},{"Start":"06:41.930 ","End":"06:44.900","Text":"the 3 distinct domains of life and organisms that belong to them."},{"Start":"06:44.900 ","End":"06:48.090","Text":"Thank you and see you at the exercises."}],"ID":27005},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 7","Duration":"58s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25685,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:01.920","Text":"Hi there. In this exercise,"},{"Start":"00:01.920 ","End":"00:04.260","Text":"we\u0027re going to go over material that we talked about in"},{"Start":"00:04.260 ","End":"00:07.380","Text":"the section of 3 distinct evolutionary domains of life,"},{"Start":"00:07.380 ","End":"00:10.600","Text":"of organisms within the cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:11.420 ","End":"00:15.780","Text":"How many distinct domains do organisms belong to, and what are they?"},{"Start":"00:15.780 ","End":"00:19.800","Text":"Now if you remember, we talked about the phylogenetic tree and we talked about Carl Woese"},{"Start":"00:19.800 ","End":"00:24.480","Text":"who developed based on ribosome RNA, a distinction."},{"Start":"00:24.480 ","End":"00:30.765","Text":"He was able to separate organisms into 3 main domains."},{"Start":"00:30.765 ","End":"00:33.510","Text":"You have bacteria, also called eubacteria,"},{"Start":"00:33.510 ","End":"00:36.795","Text":"archaea, also called archaea bacteria and eukarya."},{"Start":"00:36.795 ","End":"00:40.335","Text":"These are the 3 that we have."},{"Start":"00:40.335 ","End":"00:43.500","Text":"Again, we have 3 domains,"},{"Start":"00:43.500 ","End":"00:45.450","Text":"that\u0027s how many distinct domains."},{"Start":"00:45.450 ","End":"00:48.600","Text":"They are bacteria, archaea and eukarya."},{"Start":"00:48.600 ","End":"00:51.305","Text":"With bacteria and archaea belonging to prokaryotes and"},{"Start":"00:51.305 ","End":"00:54.715","Text":"eukaryotes like it\u0027s name is a eukaryote."},{"Start":"00:54.715 ","End":"00:58.620","Text":"Thank you, and let\u0027s go on to the next exercise."}],"ID":27006},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 8","Duration":"1m 24s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25686,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.020 ","End":"00:02.800","Text":"Hey there. Let\u0027s test our knowledge about"},{"Start":"00:02.800 ","End":"00:07.975","Text":"the 3 distinct evolutionary domains of life of organisms within the cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.975 ","End":"00:10.390","Text":"Give an example of an organism that lives in"},{"Start":"00:10.390 ","End":"00:14.170","Text":"an extreme environment and what domain does it belong to?"},{"Start":"00:14.170 ","End":"00:20.020","Text":"We talked about the fact that there are organisms that can adapt to extreme temperatures,"},{"Start":"00:20.020 ","End":"00:26.575","Text":"extreme nutritional environments, and these belong to the prokaryotes."},{"Start":"00:26.575 ","End":"00:30.264","Text":"Any of these archaea can be given as an example."},{"Start":"00:30.264 ","End":"00:33.565","Text":"There are also bacteria that evolved to survive in extreme environments,"},{"Start":"00:33.565 ","End":"00:35.740","Text":"and we mentioned within the lectures."},{"Start":"00:35.740 ","End":"00:37.165","Text":"Here are the archaea,"},{"Start":"00:37.165 ","End":"00:38.409","Text":"the domain of archaea,"},{"Start":"00:38.409 ","End":"00:40.420","Text":"and you can see by the name, Thermococcus,"},{"Start":"00:40.420 ","End":"00:42.625","Text":"Methanobacterium, Methanosarcina,"},{"Start":"00:42.625 ","End":"00:46.630","Text":"Halophiles, Thermoproteus, etc."},{"Start":"00:46.630 ","End":"00:48.418","Text":"Here are some of the examples."},{"Start":"00:48.418 ","End":"00:53.680","Text":"Any of the examples that we mentioned in the lecture can be given."},{"Start":"00:53.680 ","End":"00:57.075","Text":"Methanogens, organisms that produce methane,"},{"Start":"00:57.075 ","End":"00:59.835","Text":"CH4, in environments that lack them."},{"Start":"00:59.835 ","End":"01:05.150","Text":"Halobacteria, organisms that thrive in concentrated brine solutions."},{"Start":"01:05.150 ","End":"01:07.690","Text":"Brine, like brining pickles, okay?"},{"Start":"01:07.690 ","End":"01:11.375","Text":"Thermophiles, organisms that inhabit hot springs"},{"Start":"01:11.375 ","End":"01:15.590","Text":"or any environment with extreme temperatures."},{"Start":"01:15.590 ","End":"01:18.440","Text":"These are examples and you can have given any of"},{"Start":"01:18.440 ","End":"01:21.990","Text":"the other examples that we have within the groups here."}],"ID":27007},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 9","Duration":"1m 34s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25687,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:01.950","Text":"Hey."},{"Start":"00:01.950 ","End":"00:03.360","Text":"We\u0027re going through an exercise again,"},{"Start":"00:03.360 ","End":"00:06.300","Text":"that test the knowledge about the 3 distinct evolutionary domains of"},{"Start":"00:06.300 ","End":"00:09.735","Text":"life and organisms within the cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:09.735 ","End":"00:14.200","Text":"Let\u0027s go. What are aerobic versus anaerobic organisms,"},{"Start":"00:14.200 ","End":"00:17.325","Text":"and what 2 types of anaerobic organisms are there?"},{"Start":"00:17.325 ","End":"00:19.620","Text":"Aerobic. When you think of aerobic, exercises,"},{"Start":"00:19.620 ","End":"00:22.305","Text":"you breath a lot, and it\u0027s heavy on the breathing."},{"Start":"00:22.305 ","End":"00:24.714","Text":"It\u0027s because we need oxygen for that."},{"Start":"00:24.714 ","End":"00:26.310","Text":"That\u0027s our little hint."},{"Start":"00:26.310 ","End":"00:31.280","Text":"Aerobic organisms live in environments with plentiful supply of oxygen."},{"Start":"00:31.280 ","End":"00:34.250","Text":"Anaerobic organisms live in environments devoid of"},{"Start":"00:34.250 ","End":"00:37.550","Text":"oxygen and are either obligate anaerobes which die,"},{"Start":"00:37.550 ","End":"00:38.990","Text":"when exposed to oxygen,"},{"Start":"00:38.990 ","End":"00:43.205","Text":"or facultative anaerobe that are able to live with or without oxygen."},{"Start":"00:43.205 ","End":"00:49.445","Text":"Again, anaerobic organisms are organisms that live in environments that lack oxygen."},{"Start":"00:49.445 ","End":"00:53.180","Text":"The 2 types of anaerobic organisms are,"},{"Start":"00:53.180 ","End":"00:59.059","Text":"the obligate anaerobes, which means they need there to not be oxygen."},{"Start":"00:59.059 ","End":"01:03.650","Text":"It\u0027s obligatory for them to not have oxygen in their environment,"},{"Start":"01:03.650 ","End":"01:05.585","Text":"and if there is oxygen,"},{"Start":"01:05.585 ","End":"01:08.795","Text":"it\u0027s toxic to them and they die."},{"Start":"01:08.795 ","End":"01:11.810","Text":"On the other hand, you have facultative anaerobes,"},{"Start":"01:11.810 ","End":"01:15.020","Text":"and these are ones that are able to live with or without oxygen."},{"Start":"01:15.020 ","End":"01:19.280","Text":"They don\u0027t need oxygen over to survive like aerobic organisms,"},{"Start":"01:19.280 ","End":"01:23.690","Text":"but if there is oxygen in their environment, they\u0027re fine with it."},{"Start":"01:23.690 ","End":"01:29.465","Text":"That is what we know about aerobic versus anaerobic organisms."},{"Start":"01:29.465 ","End":"01:34.740","Text":"These tend to fall within the prokaryotic groups."}],"ID":27008},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Cell-Based Metabolic Reactions","Duration":"5m 49s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25691,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.780","Text":"Welcome back to cellular foundation"},{"Start":"00:03.780 ","End":"00:06.660","Text":"and we\u0027re talking about cell-based metabolic reactions."},{"Start":"00:06.660 ","End":"00:08.400","Text":"By the end of this section, you\u0027ll be able to"},{"Start":"00:08.400 ","End":"00:10.650","Text":"describe the different sources of energy and"},{"Start":"00:10.650 ","End":"00:13.860","Text":"biosynthetic precursors utilized by cells and be familiar"},{"Start":"00:13.860 ","End":"00:17.700","Text":"with the terms used to describe an organism\u0027s form of nutrition."},{"Start":"00:17.700 ","End":"00:21.330","Text":"Organisms can be classified according to the source of the energy and"},{"Start":"00:21.330 ","End":"00:25.200","Text":"biosynthetic precursors they need for synthesizing cellular material."},{"Start":"00:25.200 ","End":"00:31.635","Text":"So their energy source and their carbon source, the biosynthetic precursor."},{"Start":"00:31.635 ","End":"00:34.400","Text":"Now, here we see in the scheme,"},{"Start":"00:34.400 ","End":"00:40.225","Text":"all organisms are split by their energy source and by their carbon source,"},{"Start":"00:40.225 ","End":"00:42.690","Text":"and here we have examples of such."},{"Start":"00:42.690 ","End":"00:45.260","Text":"Organisms are split to 1 of 2 energy sources,"},{"Start":"00:45.260 ","End":"00:51.034","Text":"and these are further split into 1 out of 2 carbon sources."},{"Start":"00:51.034 ","End":"00:56.500","Text":"Therefore, we will have 4 major groups and the examples of such."},{"Start":"00:56.500 ","End":"00:57.885","Text":"Let\u0027s explain this."},{"Start":"00:57.885 ","End":"01:00.570","Text":"There are 2 broad categories based on energy sources."},{"Start":"01:00.570 ","End":"01:04.130","Text":"We said all organisms just split to 1 of 2 energy sources."},{"Start":"01:04.130 ","End":"01:06.290","Text":"Now, like many terms in biology,"},{"Start":"01:06.290 ","End":"01:10.436","Text":"these terms from the Greek language, phototrophs use sunlight."},{"Start":"01:10.436 ","End":"01:12.305","Text":"Light, phototrophs."},{"Start":"01:12.305 ","End":"01:15.905","Text":"This is from the word photo in the Greek language,"},{"Start":"01:15.905 ","End":"01:21.935","Text":"which means light like photograph in printing images based on light."},{"Start":"01:21.935 ","End":"01:25.680","Text":"Troph means nourishment in Greek."},{"Start":"01:25.680 ","End":"01:28.230","Text":"Their source of nourishment,"},{"Start":"01:28.230 ","End":"01:33.253","Text":"their source of energy is from the light and that will be our phototrophs,"},{"Start":"01:33.253 ","End":"01:35.645","Text":"use light as their energy source."},{"Start":"01:35.645 ","End":"01:38.278","Text":"Now the other option will be chemotrophs."},{"Start":"01:38.278 ","End":"01:41.060","Text":"As you see this term, chemo is familiar."},{"Start":"01:41.060 ","End":"01:45.740","Text":"Chemical, they derive their energy from oxidation of a chemical fuel,"},{"Start":"01:45.740 ","End":"01:51.360","Text":"meaning they use chemicals in order to derive energy as we do,"},{"Start":"01:51.360 ","End":"01:55.095","Text":"we breathe oxygen in environment in order to have"},{"Start":"01:55.095 ","End":"02:00.295","Text":"energy and this means you have phototrophs and chemotrophs."},{"Start":"02:00.295 ","End":"02:04.730","Text":"Now these can further be divided by the carbon source."},{"Start":"02:04.730 ","End":"02:07.970","Text":"They can be divided into those that synthesize they\u0027re bio-molecules"},{"Start":"02:07.970 ","End":"02:11.795","Text":"directly from CO_2, autotrophs."},{"Start":"02:11.795 ","End":"02:19.195","Text":"Auto is from Greek language and means self, autotrophs."},{"Start":"02:19.195 ","End":"02:26.030","Text":"And we have those that require some preformed organic nutrients made by other organisms,"},{"Start":"02:26.030 ","End":"02:27.695","Text":"meaning it\u0027s from the diet,"},{"Start":"02:27.695 ","End":"02:29.360","Text":"it\u0027s eaten, it\u0027s consumed,"},{"Start":"02:29.360 ","End":"02:34.030","Text":"and these are heterotrophs, hetero for other."},{"Start":"02:34.030 ","End":"02:37.155","Text":"We know these terms auto,"},{"Start":"02:37.155 ","End":"02:41.750","Text":"hetero, we use them in other forms of words."},{"Start":"02:41.750 ","End":"02:44.105","Text":"We have self and other,"},{"Start":"02:44.105 ","End":"02:48.470","Text":"meaning that the carbon source is either from self,"},{"Start":"02:48.470 ","End":"02:54.815","Text":"they just use CO_2 from the environment as their carbon source for nourishment or other,"},{"Start":"02:54.815 ","End":"02:56.570","Text":"they have to consume it,"},{"Start":"02:56.570 ","End":"03:02.710","Text":"organic material that has been preformed by another organism."},{"Start":"03:02.710 ","End":"03:07.595","Text":"These terms can be combined to describe an organism\u0027s form of nutrition."},{"Start":"03:07.595 ","End":"03:11.396","Text":"This is further, you have the chemotrophs and the phototrophs."},{"Start":"03:11.396 ","End":"03:14.090","Text":"But then we have this further split by carbon source"},{"Start":"03:14.090 ","End":"03:17.120","Text":"and these would be either heterotrophs or autotrophs."},{"Start":"03:17.120 ","End":"03:20.120","Text":"Remember, hetero is they use organic material that they"},{"Start":"03:20.120 ","End":"03:24.170","Text":"consumed or CO_2 from the environment, this is autotrophs."},{"Start":"03:24.170 ","End":"03:26.644","Text":"If you take humans, for example,"},{"Start":"03:26.644 ","End":"03:31.580","Text":"we breathe oxygen and we have different chemicals in our body that we use for energy,"},{"Start":"03:31.580 ","End":"03:35.360","Text":"and then we have to eat our carbon source,"},{"Start":"03:35.360 ","End":"03:37.535","Text":"like we talk about carbs in the diet."},{"Start":"03:37.535 ","End":"03:40.940","Text":"Therefore, we are chemotrophs,"},{"Start":"03:40.940 ","End":"03:44.270","Text":"and since we consume our carbon source,"},{"Start":"03:44.270 ","End":"03:49.880","Text":"hetero and together this makes us chemoheterotrophs,"},{"Start":"03:49.880 ","End":"03:53.960","Text":"as you see here the examples of chemoheterotrophs are all animals,"},{"Start":"03:53.960 ","End":"03:56.150","Text":"most fungi and protozoa,"},{"Start":"03:56.150 ","End":"03:59.554","Text":"and we fall in this group, animals and humans."},{"Start":"03:59.554 ","End":"04:03.140","Text":"Now let\u0027s go into cyanobacteria."},{"Start":"04:03.140 ","End":"04:06.860","Text":"This is an example of phototrophs."},{"Start":"04:06.860 ","End":"04:12.655","Text":"They use light as their source of energy and"},{"Start":"04:12.655 ","End":"04:18.980","Text":"they use CO_2 from the environment for their nourishment,"},{"Start":"04:18.980 ","End":"04:22.130","Text":"and that means they are autotrophs."},{"Start":"04:22.130 ","End":"04:27.985","Text":"They just need light and the atmosphere."},{"Start":"04:27.985 ","End":"04:30.225","Text":"They are photoautotrophs,"},{"Start":"04:30.225 ","End":"04:33.545","Text":"and that is their source of energy and nourishment."},{"Start":"04:33.545 ","End":"04:37.520","Text":"If we go into the whole split of organisms,"},{"Start":"04:37.520 ","End":"04:39.950","Text":"we went to energy source,"},{"Start":"04:39.950 ","End":"04:43.775","Text":"chemical, chemotrophs, split to organic."},{"Start":"04:43.775 ","End":"04:46.310","Text":"Chemoheterotrophs, we have all animals,"},{"Start":"04:46.310 ","End":"04:47.952","Text":"most fungi, and protozoa."},{"Start":"04:47.952 ","End":"04:50.765","Text":"Or chemotrophs that use CO_2 from the environment,"},{"Start":"04:50.765 ","End":"04:56.060","Text":"and these are chemoautotrophs and examples of this are hydrogen and sulfur bacteria,"},{"Start":"04:56.060 ","End":"04:58.655","Text":"and there are additional types of bacteria in this group."},{"Start":"04:58.655 ","End":"05:00.875","Text":"Then when we looked at the other sources of energy,"},{"Start":"05:00.875 ","End":"05:03.455","Text":"we have the light, the phototrophs."},{"Start":"05:03.455 ","End":"05:08.270","Text":"These are further split again either to using organic source of carbon,"},{"Start":"05:08.270 ","End":"05:13.909","Text":"photoheterotrophs, and the 2 examples of this are green bacteria and purple bacteria."},{"Start":"05:13.909 ","End":"05:18.110","Text":"For photoautotrophs that use CO_2 from the environment,"},{"Start":"05:18.110 ","End":"05:20.725","Text":"we have plants and cyanobacteria."},{"Start":"05:20.725 ","End":"05:23.960","Text":"In this section, we covered the different sources of"},{"Start":"05:23.960 ","End":"05:27.620","Text":"energy and biosynthetic precursors utilized by cells."},{"Start":"05:27.620 ","End":"05:29.600","Text":"We have the 2 different sources of energy,"},{"Start":"05:29.600 ","End":"05:31.280","Text":"you have light or chemical,"},{"Start":"05:31.280 ","End":"05:32.960","Text":"and the biosynthetic precursors,"},{"Start":"05:32.960 ","End":"05:35.820","Text":"the carbon source and we are"},{"Start":"05:35.820 ","End":"05:39.290","Text":"familiar with the terms used to describe an organism\u0027s form of nutrition,"},{"Start":"05:39.290 ","End":"05:43.445","Text":"photoheterotroph, chemoheterotrophs, autotroph,"},{"Start":"05:43.445 ","End":"05:46.550","Text":"heterotroph chemoheterotroph, etc."},{"Start":"05:46.550 ","End":"05:50.820","Text":"See you in the next section or in the exercises to come."}],"ID":27009},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 10","Duration":"2m 43s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25689,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.120","Text":"Okay. Welcome to the exercises covering"},{"Start":"00:03.120 ","End":"00:07.185","Text":"cell-based metabolic reactions within the cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.185 ","End":"00:09.930","Text":"This exercise is split into 2 parts."},{"Start":"00:09.930 ","End":"00:13.680","Text":"Part A, name the 2 categories based on energy sources used by"},{"Start":"00:13.680 ","End":"00:17.685","Text":"cells for synthesizing cellular material and define them."},{"Start":"00:17.685 ","End":"00:24.315","Text":"If you remember, we talked about either chemical source or light source."},{"Start":"00:24.315 ","End":"00:26.370","Text":"You have phototrophs."},{"Start":"00:26.370 ","End":"00:29.355","Text":"The term photo comes from light,"},{"Start":"00:29.355 ","End":"00:35.370","Text":"so they use the sun as their source of energy and we had chemotrophs."},{"Start":"00:35.370 ","End":"00:37.395","Text":"Chemo, reminder, chemical."},{"Start":"00:37.395 ","End":"00:41.280","Text":"They derive their energy from chemicals."},{"Start":"00:41.280 ","End":"00:45.620","Text":"Phototrophs use sunlight as their source of"},{"Start":"00:45.620 ","End":"00:50.150","Text":"energy and chemotrophs derive their energy from chemicals."},{"Start":"00:50.150 ","End":"00:52.590","Text":"Part B, into what"},{"Start":"00:52.590 ","End":"00:54.859","Text":"2 further classifications can phototrophs"},{"Start":"00:54.859 ","End":"00:57.425","Text":"and chemotrophs be divided to and explain these."},{"Start":"00:57.425 ","End":"01:00.650","Text":"We talked about the further classification being based on"},{"Start":"01:00.650 ","End":"01:06.035","Text":"the carbon source and we split it either to organic or CO_2."},{"Start":"01:06.035 ","End":"01:10.640","Text":"Either relying on yourself as your source of carbon from"},{"Start":"01:10.640 ","End":"01:16.165","Text":"the environment that you\u0027re in or needing to get it through consumption."},{"Start":"01:16.165 ","End":"01:19.335","Text":"Autotrophs, self, right?"},{"Start":"01:19.335 ","End":"01:22.340","Text":"They can get it on their own."},{"Start":"01:22.340 ","End":"01:24.210","Text":"Or heterotrophs, other,"},{"Start":"01:24.210 ","End":"01:26.765","Text":"they need to consume it,"},{"Start":"01:26.765 ","End":"01:29.435","Text":"get it from another organism."},{"Start":"01:29.435 ","End":"01:32.510","Text":"Autotrophs, those that can synthesize"},{"Start":"01:32.510 ","End":"01:36.845","Text":"their biomolecules directly from CO_2 in their environment,"},{"Start":"01:36.845 ","End":"01:41.630","Text":"being it the air or the water or whatever their environment is, and heterotrophs,"},{"Start":"01:41.630 ","End":"01:45.830","Text":"those that require some preformed organic nutrients made by other organisms,"},{"Start":"01:45.830 ","End":"01:47.885","Text":"meaning in their diet, they eat it."},{"Start":"01:47.885 ","End":"01:51.420","Text":"Just a reminder, you have all organisms split"},{"Start":"01:51.420 ","End":"01:54.725","Text":"into the 2 forms of energy that we talked about in Part A,"},{"Start":"01:54.725 ","End":"01:56.900","Text":"either chemical or light, therefore,"},{"Start":"01:56.900 ","End":"01:59.945","Text":"chemotrophs for chemical, phototrophs for light."},{"Start":"01:59.945 ","End":"02:01.519","Text":"This is further divided,"},{"Start":"02:01.519 ","End":"02:03.165","Text":"as we mentioned in Part B,"},{"Start":"02:03.165 ","End":"02:05.115","Text":"by their carbon source."},{"Start":"02:05.115 ","End":"02:08.060","Text":"These will be the ones that use organic."},{"Start":"02:08.060 ","End":"02:10.640","Text":"They need to consume the carbon source,"},{"Start":"02:10.640 ","End":"02:13.991","Text":"therefore, they\u0027re heterotrophs,"},{"Start":"02:13.991 ","End":"02:18.290","Text":"or they can make it themselves from CO2 in the atmosphere,"},{"Start":"02:18.290 ","End":"02:22.415","Text":"in their environment and they are therefore autotrophs."},{"Start":"02:22.415 ","End":"02:25.510","Text":"They can make it themselves."},{"Start":"02:25.510 ","End":"02:30.000","Text":"This is basically the split to 4 groups,"},{"Start":"02:30.000 ","End":"02:32.930","Text":"chemoheterotrophs or photoheterotrophs and"},{"Start":"02:32.930 ","End":"02:37.870","Text":"chemoautotrophs and photoautotrophs with the examples of these."},{"Start":"02:37.870 ","End":"02:43.830","Text":"With this, we covered the exercise on cell-based metabolic reactions."}],"ID":27010},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 11","Duration":"1m 41s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25690,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.300","Text":"Okay. Welcome back to Cell-based Metabolic Reactions."},{"Start":"00:03.300 ","End":"00:06.750","Text":"This is an exercise within cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:06.750 ","End":"00:12.570","Text":"Within the classification based on energy source utilization, what are humans?"},{"Start":"00:12.570 ","End":"00:14.910","Text":"We talked about the 2 sources of energy."},{"Start":"00:14.910 ","End":"00:18.720","Text":"We have light, which is photo,"},{"Start":"00:18.720 ","End":"00:21.615","Text":"or chemical which is chemo."},{"Start":"00:21.615 ","End":"00:27.390","Text":"We have either phototrophs, or chemotrophs."},{"Start":"00:27.390 ","End":"00:29.340","Text":"As wonderful as humans are,"},{"Start":"00:29.340 ","End":"00:33.470","Text":"we cannot use the sun to have our source of energy."},{"Start":"00:33.470 ","End":"00:36.770","Text":"We can get tan, but we need chemical source of energy,"},{"Start":"00:36.770 ","End":"00:38.540","Text":"therefore, we are chemotrophs."},{"Start":"00:38.540 ","End":"00:42.155","Text":"We have a further classification based on"},{"Start":"00:42.155 ","End":"00:48.545","Text":"carbon sources and there it\u0027s further split into either Co_2,"},{"Start":"00:48.545 ","End":"00:51.439","Text":"where you get it yourself from the environment."},{"Start":"00:51.439 ","End":"00:56.795","Text":"Therefore, it\u0027s autotrophs, or organic,"},{"Start":"00:56.795 ","End":"00:59.450","Text":"which you get it from another organism,"},{"Start":"00:59.450 ","End":"01:04.200","Text":"which therefore means a heterotroph."},{"Start":"01:04.340 ","End":"01:11.120","Text":"Humans, we need to get our carbon from an organic substance."},{"Start":"01:11.120 ","End":"01:13.370","Text":"If we want to go for runner exercise,"},{"Start":"01:13.370 ","End":"01:17.975","Text":"we need to consume carbs inorganic form of carbon."},{"Start":"01:17.975 ","End":"01:21.860","Text":"Therefore, we are chemoheterotrophs."},{"Start":"01:21.860 ","End":"01:23.900","Text":"As mentioned, human are"},{"Start":"01:23.900 ","End":"01:28.295","Text":"chemoheterotrophs since we derive the energy from a chemical source,"},{"Start":"01:28.295 ","End":"01:31.460","Text":"and rely on organic source of fuel,"},{"Start":"01:31.460 ","End":"01:35.930","Text":"of carbon, nutrients, or in other words food."},{"Start":"01:35.930 ","End":"01:38.630","Text":"With this, we completed this exercise."},{"Start":"01:38.630 ","End":"01:41.070","Text":"See you in the next section."}],"ID":27011},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Small Biomolecules Part 1","Duration":"10m 7s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25698,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.440 ","End":"00:04.470","Text":"Hi there. Welcome back to Cellular Foundation."},{"Start":"00:04.470 ","End":"00:07.530","Text":"This time we will be talking about small biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:07.530 ","End":"00:09.840","Text":"By the end of this section, you will be able to"},{"Start":"00:09.840 ","End":"00:12.780","Text":"list the 4 major classes of biological molecules,"},{"Start":"00:12.780 ","End":"00:16.013","Text":"describe nucleotides, their components, basic structure,"},{"Start":"00:16.013 ","End":"00:18.345","Text":"and define the 2 types of nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"00:18.345 ","End":"00:21.260","Text":"establish the components and structure of amino acids,"},{"Start":"00:21.260 ","End":"00:23.615","Text":"their function and how they differ from each other,"},{"Start":"00:23.615 ","End":"00:25.880","Text":"define simple carbs, the 2 types and"},{"Start":"00:25.880 ","End":"00:28.850","Text":"examples for each type as well as various functions,"},{"Start":"00:28.850 ","End":"00:30.230","Text":"and describe fatty acids,"},{"Start":"00:30.230 ","End":"00:32.495","Text":"the different types, and several functions."},{"Start":"00:32.495 ","End":"00:37.235","Text":"Now this is a lot of material and therefore we split this into 3 parts."},{"Start":"00:37.235 ","End":"00:40.590","Text":"Part 1, small biomolecules,"},{"Start":"00:40.590 ","End":"00:45.890","Text":"we will cover the 4 major classes of biological molecules and describe nucleotides,"},{"Start":"00:45.890 ","End":"00:47.510","Text":"their components, basic structure,"},{"Start":"00:47.510 ","End":"00:50.610","Text":"and define the 2 types of nucleic acids."},{"Start":"00:50.740 ","End":"00:56.180","Text":"I will introduce what we can refer to as the building blocks of life,"},{"Start":"00:56.180 ","End":"01:03.010","Text":"which can be categorized in the 4 major classes of small biomolecules and cells."},{"Start":"01:03.010 ","End":"01:06.245","Text":"The first one we\u0027ll talk about is nucleotides."},{"Start":"01:06.245 ","End":"01:09.594","Text":"You see here that the chemical structure and the molecular structure,"},{"Start":"01:09.594 ","End":"01:15.215","Text":"amino acids are the next class of biomolecules that we\u0027ll talk about."},{"Start":"01:15.215 ","End":"01:18.560","Text":"Again, here is what they\u0027re composed of."},{"Start":"01:18.560 ","End":"01:20.105","Text":"These are amino acids,"},{"Start":"01:20.105 ","End":"01:23.120","Text":"and together, they make up into proteins."},{"Start":"01:23.120 ","End":"01:26.315","Text":"Then we have the sugars, simple sugars."},{"Start":"01:26.315 ","End":"01:27.723","Text":"You know what sugar is,"},{"Start":"01:27.723 ","End":"01:31.985","Text":"this is the chemical structure, and fatty acids."},{"Start":"01:31.985 ","End":"01:36.440","Text":"Again, you have the chemical component and what they make."},{"Start":"01:36.440 ","End":"01:39.200","Text":"Let\u0027s start with nucleotides."},{"Start":"01:39.200 ","End":"01:44.340","Text":"These are molecules that contain 3 major groups."},{"Start":"01:44.340 ","End":"01:47.810","Text":"You have the nitrogenous base, as you see here,"},{"Start":"01:47.810 ","End":"01:49.835","Text":"there\u0027s a base and you see nitrogens,"},{"Start":"01:49.835 ","End":"01:52.955","Text":"N stands for nitrogen."},{"Start":"01:52.955 ","End":"01:57.410","Text":"You have the sugar which is here."},{"Start":"01:57.410 ","End":"01:59.690","Text":"This is a 5-membered sugar."},{"Start":"01:59.690 ","End":"02:01.160","Text":"This refers to the carbons."},{"Start":"02:01.160 ","End":"02:03.200","Text":"The carbons are numbered."},{"Start":"02:03.200 ","End":"02:05.000","Text":"You have 1, 2, 3, 4,"},{"Start":"02:05.000 ","End":"02:08.277","Text":"5 carbons, which make up the sugar,"},{"Start":"02:08.277 ","End":"02:13.955","Text":"and the sugars are either a ribose or deoxyribose."},{"Start":"02:13.955 ","End":"02:17.600","Text":"This hints to something that we\u0027ll talk about a little bit later."},{"Start":"02:17.600 ","End":"02:22.255","Text":"You\u0027ve heard RNA and DNA."},{"Start":"02:22.255 ","End":"02:29.839","Text":"RNA will be our ribose and DNA will have this sugar,"},{"Start":"02:29.839 ","End":"02:35.045","Text":"this 5-membered sugar, this 5-carbon sugar as a deoxyribose."},{"Start":"02:35.045 ","End":"02:38.855","Text":"The third component is the phosphate group."},{"Start":"02:38.855 ","End":"02:43.055","Text":"The phosphate group will have 1-3 phosphate groups. You see one here."},{"Start":"02:43.055 ","End":"02:47.705","Text":"Again, the 3 components of a nucleotide is the nitrogenous base,"},{"Start":"02:47.705 ","End":"02:51.545","Text":"the 5-carbon sugar, and the phosphate."},{"Start":"02:51.545 ","End":"02:56.645","Text":"Now, nucleic acids are an assembly of nucleotides into a linear chain."},{"Start":"02:56.645 ","End":"03:01.820","Text":"You have a few of these nucleotides to form the nucleic acids and they are"},{"Start":"03:01.820 ","End":"03:09.190","Text":"these chains of nucleic acids which are split into 2 major types."},{"Start":"03:09.190 ","End":"03:13.550","Text":"I mentioned before, you have the DNA which is"},{"Start":"03:13.550 ","End":"03:19.460","Text":"a deoxyribonucleic acid and is made of the deoxyribose,"},{"Start":"03:19.460 ","End":"03:27.615","Text":"this refers to the sugar here and you have the RNA, so ribonucleic acid."},{"Start":"03:27.615 ","End":"03:30.320","Text":"It\u0027s made of the ribose in RNA."},{"Start":"03:30.320 ","End":"03:33.185","Text":"If you see here, we have the nucleotide,"},{"Start":"03:33.185 ","End":"03:35.565","Text":"you have the sugar,"},{"Start":"03:35.565 ","End":"03:36.620","Text":"and there are the 2 types,"},{"Start":"03:36.620 ","End":"03:40.475","Text":"either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA."},{"Start":"03:40.475 ","End":"03:44.855","Text":"Now there are 5 nucleotide basis, 5 types."},{"Start":"03:44.855 ","End":"03:47.480","Text":"You have adenine,"},{"Start":"03:47.480 ","End":"03:50.535","Text":"A, you have guanine,"},{"Start":"03:50.535 ","End":"03:54.190","Text":"G. You see the adenine here,"},{"Start":"03:54.190 ","End":"03:57.650","Text":"you see a guanine here."},{"Start":"03:57.650 ","End":"04:04.805","Text":"What the difference would be is in a little bit of this form,"},{"Start":"04:04.805 ","End":"04:12.545","Text":"we have cytosine as you see here and thiamine as you see here."},{"Start":"04:12.545 ","End":"04:17.015","Text":"Now there\u0027s a 5th one which is uracil you don\u0027t see here."},{"Start":"04:17.015 ","End":"04:22.960","Text":"Uracil is found in RNA while these 4 are found in DNA"},{"Start":"04:22.960 ","End":"04:29.505","Text":"whereas in RNA you will see uracil instead of the thymine."},{"Start":"04:29.505 ","End":"04:33.230","Text":"Now, if you\u0027ve heard of it,"},{"Start":"04:33.230 ","End":"04:35.870","Text":"there was the movie called Gattaca and"},{"Start":"04:35.870 ","End":"04:38.510","Text":"it dealt with the genetic code and it was basically"},{"Start":"04:38.510 ","End":"04:46.370","Text":"a play on the nucleotides that are found in the nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"04:46.370 ","End":"04:48.550","Text":"basically in the DNA."},{"Start":"04:48.550 ","End":"04:55.040","Text":"One way to remember what\u0027s in DNA is thinking of this movie within RNA,"},{"Start":"04:55.040 ","End":"04:57.110","Text":"you have the U."},{"Start":"04:57.110 ","End":"05:00.860","Text":"The order of the bases in the linear chain,"},{"Start":"05:00.860 ","End":"05:07.220","Text":"in this nucleic acid define the biological specificity of a nucleic acid."},{"Start":"05:07.220 ","End":"05:11.270","Text":"What this means is the order of the base of"},{"Start":"05:11.270 ","End":"05:15.320","Text":"the nucleotides that you have is what defines it."},{"Start":"05:15.320 ","End":"05:19.175","Text":"That is the idea of letters in a word."},{"Start":"05:19.175 ","End":"05:26.050","Text":"If you have C-A-T versus A-C-T,"},{"Start":"05:26.050 ","End":"05:29.990","Text":"you have the word cat versus the word act."},{"Start":"05:29.990 ","End":"05:34.910","Text":"That is exactly what gives the separation,"},{"Start":"05:34.910 ","End":"05:38.300","Text":"the difference in the nucleic acids when you"},{"Start":"05:38.300 ","End":"05:42.425","Text":"change the order of the bases of the nucleotides."},{"Start":"05:42.425 ","End":"05:46.145","Text":"This is what defines the genetic sequence."},{"Start":"05:46.145 ","End":"05:49.490","Text":"If you see here, this is when they have"},{"Start":"05:49.490 ","End":"05:56.645","Text":"the double-stranded nucleic acid and you have an association."},{"Start":"05:56.645 ","End":"06:02.480","Text":"Each base can associate with a counter base and it\u0027s specific,"},{"Start":"06:02.480 ","End":"06:09.635","Text":"you have C and G can bind with each other and A and T can associate with each other."},{"Start":"06:09.635 ","End":"06:15.695","Text":"We will talk about this further in a different section in a different chapter."},{"Start":"06:15.695 ","End":"06:21.295","Text":"But these actually are what form the genetic sequence, the DNA."},{"Start":"06:21.295 ","End":"06:26.550","Text":"Now nucleic acids are information, they\u0027re storage molecules,"},{"Start":"06:26.550 ","End":"06:28.580","Text":"they\u0027re genetic material,"},{"Start":"06:28.580 ","End":"06:32.885","Text":"they provide the directions for building proteins."},{"Start":"06:32.885 ","End":"06:38.870","Text":"They are what store the information that passes on from cell to cell,"},{"Start":"06:38.870 ","End":"06:41.930","Text":"generation to generation to provide the directions of"},{"Start":"06:41.930 ","End":"06:45.680","Text":"building proteins that are needed within the cells and within the body."},{"Start":"06:45.680 ","End":"06:47.930","Text":"Now additional roles of nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"06:47.930 ","End":"06:54.875","Text":"I\u0027m going to give a few examples here are ATP, adenosine triphosphate."},{"Start":"06:54.875 ","End":"07:00.089","Text":"We talked about this whole structure of the nucleotide,"},{"Start":"07:00.089 ","End":"07:03.110","Text":"you have the adenine, then you have the sugar,"},{"Start":"07:03.110 ","End":"07:06.650","Text":"the ribose, and then you have the phosphate group."},{"Start":"07:06.650 ","End":"07:08.318","Text":"You have 3 of them,"},{"Start":"07:08.318 ","End":"07:10.950","Text":"and that is why it is triphosphate,"},{"Start":"07:10.950 ","End":"07:16.730","Text":"3 phosphates and adenosine because it is with adenine as the base."},{"Start":"07:16.730 ","End":"07:18.830","Text":"You have A."},{"Start":"07:18.830 ","End":"07:22.310","Text":"Now, ATP is the energy source of the cell,"},{"Start":"07:22.310 ","End":"07:24.320","Text":"it\u0027s the energy currency of the cell,"},{"Start":"07:24.320 ","End":"07:28.565","Text":"and it provides the driving source for reactions to occur."},{"Start":"07:28.565 ","End":"07:36.900","Text":"By breaking this bond between the 2 phosphates of the 3,"},{"Start":"07:36.900 ","End":"07:40.490","Text":"there\u0027s so much energy in this bond that when you break it apart,"},{"Start":"07:40.490 ","End":"07:41.795","Text":"energy is released,"},{"Start":"07:41.795 ","End":"07:49.085","Text":"and this provides energy for functions and for things to occur in the cells."},{"Start":"07:49.085 ","End":"07:56.990","Text":"Adenosine, a nucleoside, it\u0027s a nitrogenous base adenine and a 5-carbon sugar ribose."},{"Start":"07:56.990 ","End":"08:02.025","Text":"Remember, adenine, this is"},{"Start":"08:02.025 ","End":"08:07.905","Text":"the adenine and then we have the 3 phosphates."},{"Start":"08:07.905 ","End":"08:12.380","Text":"Adenosine triphosphate. As I mentioned,"},{"Start":"08:12.380 ","End":"08:15.580","Text":"you have the triphosphate is the 3 phosphates."},{"Start":"08:15.580 ","End":"08:19.140","Text":"Another example is cAMP,"},{"Start":"08:19.140 ","End":"08:21.840","Text":"cAMP, cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate."},{"Start":"08:21.840 ","End":"08:25.010","Text":"You see similarity, adenosine again,"},{"Start":"08:25.010 ","End":"08:27.348","Text":"except here there\u0027s a monophosphate,"},{"Start":"08:27.348 ","End":"08:29.514","Text":"it means 1 phosphate."},{"Start":"08:29.514 ","End":"08:32.220","Text":"In cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate,"},{"Start":"08:32.220 ","End":"08:37.145","Text":"what you\u0027re seeing is that the phosphate is actually circular."},{"Start":"08:37.145 ","End":"08:42.560","Text":"You have a circular molecular structure here versus if you look before,"},{"Start":"08:42.560 ","End":"08:46.171","Text":"we had phosphates in a linear orientation,"},{"Start":"08:46.171 ","End":"08:48.320","Text":"here it\u0027s an a cyclic orientation,"},{"Start":"08:48.320 ","End":"08:51.120","Text":"a cycle, a circle."},{"Start":"08:51.280 ","End":"08:57.265","Text":"Similarly, we have cGMP, cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate."},{"Start":"08:57.265 ","End":"09:02.465","Text":"Again, the phosphate, the 1 phosphate is in a cyclic orientation,"},{"Start":"09:02.465 ","End":"09:04.505","Text":"in a cycle, in a circle,"},{"Start":"09:04.505 ","End":"09:07.520","Text":"and the difference is that the nitrogenous base here"},{"Start":"09:07.520 ","End":"09:10.789","Text":"is not adenosine like an ATP or cAMP,"},{"Start":"09:10.789 ","End":"09:13.160","Text":"rather it is guanosine."},{"Start":"09:13.160 ","End":"09:15.920","Text":"Guanosine is the base here,"},{"Start":"09:15.920 ","End":"09:20.445","Text":"G versus A, cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate."},{"Start":"09:20.445 ","End":"09:25.160","Text":"CMP and cGMP are signaling molecules"},{"Start":"09:25.160 ","End":"09:30.380","Text":"associated with a metabolic and physiological processes,"},{"Start":"09:30.380 ","End":"09:34.430","Text":"meaning they are used to give certain signals in"},{"Start":"09:34.430 ","End":"09:41.020","Text":"the body to metabolize or have physiological processes."},{"Start":"09:41.020 ","End":"09:45.030","Text":"At this point, we had completed Part 1 and talked about"},{"Start":"09:45.030 ","End":"09:49.995","Text":"the 4 major classes of biological molecules and describe nucleotides, their components,"},{"Start":"09:49.995 ","End":"09:54.080","Text":"basic structure to find the 2 types of nucleic acids, RNA and DNA,"},{"Start":"09:54.080 ","End":"09:59.495","Text":"and gave a few different examples of the functions."},{"Start":"09:59.495 ","End":"10:02.555","Text":"Now we will move on to Part 2."},{"Start":"10:02.555 ","End":"10:07.230","Text":"See you in Part 2 of small biomolecules."}],"ID":27012},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Small Biomolecules Part 2","Duration":"10m 51s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25699,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:01.640 ","End":"00:05.430","Text":"Now, we are in Part 2: Small Biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:05.430 ","End":"00:11.130","Text":"Here, we will be able to establish the components and structure of amino acids,"},{"Start":"00:11.130 ","End":"00:13.847","Text":"their function and how they differ from each other,"},{"Start":"00:13.847 ","End":"00:15.480","Text":"and define simple carbs;"},{"Start":"00:15.480 ","End":"00:20.290","Text":"the 2 types and examples for each type as well as various functions."},{"Start":"00:20.480 ","End":"00:22.830","Text":"Amino acids."},{"Start":"00:22.830 ","End":"00:27.149","Text":"Each amino acid has a central carbon,"},{"Start":"00:27.149 ","End":"00:28.620","Text":"as you see here,"},{"Start":"00:28.620 ","End":"00:33.255","Text":"that is linked to an amino group which contains nitrogen,"},{"Start":"00:33.255 ","End":"00:34.770","Text":"as you see here,"},{"Start":"00:34.770 ","End":"00:38.775","Text":"and a carboxyl group, as you see here."},{"Start":"00:38.775 ","End":"00:43.640","Text":"Just reminds you if you think back to when we covered in Part 1,"},{"Start":"00:43.640 ","End":"00:49.180","Text":"the nucleotide that also had 3 major components."},{"Start":"00:49.180 ","End":"00:52.505","Text":"In addition, here with amino acids,"},{"Start":"00:52.505 ","End":"01:00.035","Text":"you also have the hydrogen atom and you have the R group or the side chain,"},{"Start":"01:00.035 ","End":"01:04.670","Text":"which is connected to the central carbon."},{"Start":"01:04.670 ","End":"01:11.150","Text":"This is actually what defines and differs between amino acids;"},{"Start":"01:11.150 ","End":"01:16.685","Text":"is their side chain that is attached to the central carbon that arching."},{"Start":"01:16.685 ","End":"01:20.855","Text":"If you look, there are 20 commonly occurring amino acids,"},{"Start":"01:20.855 ","End":"01:23.985","Text":"each of which differs in R group."},{"Start":"01:23.985 ","End":"01:28.130","Text":"When you look, if you\u0027re looking here, the R group,"},{"Start":"01:28.130 ","End":"01:31.460","Text":"you see differences between them with some of them being"},{"Start":"01:31.460 ","End":"01:39.440","Text":"super complex tryptophan knowing to have these what they\u0027re called aromatic rings,"},{"Start":"01:39.440 ","End":"01:41.600","Text":"and then you have the more simple,"},{"Start":"01:41.600 ","End":"01:45.124","Text":"the glycine, the seems smallest alanine, simple."},{"Start":"01:45.124 ","End":"01:49.310","Text":"Now, I\u0027m not going to go into the details of this at this point,"},{"Start":"01:49.310 ","End":"01:52.220","Text":"but I will say that all of them are needed"},{"Start":"01:52.220 ","End":"01:55.310","Text":"for proper functioning of the body and furthermore,"},{"Start":"01:55.310 ","End":"01:58.914","Text":"these can be divided into 2 major groups"},{"Start":"01:58.914 ","End":"02:02.840","Text":": essential amino acids and non-essential amino acids."},{"Start":"02:02.840 ","End":"02:07.650","Text":"Let\u0027s just clarify,"},{"Start":"02:07.650 ","End":"02:09.470","Text":"they\u0027re all essential, as I said,"},{"Start":"02:09.470 ","End":"02:12.245","Text":"they\u0027re all needed for proper functioning of the body,"},{"Start":"02:12.245 ","End":"02:14.045","Text":"but this can be a little confusing,"},{"Start":"02:14.045 ","End":"02:16.385","Text":"but essential versus non-essential,"},{"Start":"02:16.385 ","End":"02:20.180","Text":"essential means that we need to get them from"},{"Start":"02:20.180 ","End":"02:25.595","Text":"a different source because we can\u0027t make them ourselves versus non-essential amino acids."},{"Start":"02:25.595 ","End":"02:29.270","Text":"This is something that our body can make on our own."},{"Start":"02:29.270 ","End":"02:32.330","Text":"When we think of this, non-essential amino acids,"},{"Start":"02:32.330 ","End":"02:33.510","Text":"it\u0027s something our body makes,"},{"Start":"02:33.510 ","End":"02:38.220","Text":"essential amino acids are things that we need to eat in our diet."},{"Start":"02:39.830 ","End":"02:43.640","Text":"Amino acids play roles in protein function."},{"Start":"02:43.640 ","End":"02:45.710","Text":"They actually compose proteins."},{"Start":"02:45.710 ","End":"02:48.110","Text":"They play roles in neurotransmission,"},{"Start":"02:48.110 ","End":"02:52.940","Text":"metabolism, energy conversion, and let\u0027s talk about an example."},{"Start":"02:52.940 ","End":"02:55.745","Text":"Glycine, the smallest amino acid."},{"Start":"02:55.745 ","End":"02:58.475","Text":"Even being the smallest amino acid,"},{"Start":"02:58.475 ","End":"03:00.485","Text":"you see the smallest R group."},{"Start":"03:00.485 ","End":"03:03.775","Text":"If you see here, still,"},{"Start":"03:03.775 ","End":"03:07.100","Text":"it is necessary for the synthesis of heme,"},{"Start":"03:07.100 ","End":"03:11.825","Text":"the iron containing molecule of hemoglobin in red blood cells."},{"Start":"03:11.825 ","End":"03:21.390","Text":"It\u0027s what allows for carriage of heme and oxygen and iron through the blood to our body."},{"Start":"03:21.390 ","End":"03:24.980","Text":"Super crucial. Glutamate and derivatives of"},{"Start":"03:24.980 ","End":"03:29.855","Text":"tyrosine function as neurotransmitters which are signaling molecules in the brain."},{"Start":"03:29.855 ","End":"03:34.535","Text":"Neurotransmitters, from the word neuro and transmission."},{"Start":"03:34.535 ","End":"03:38.704","Text":"They transmit signals within our brain,"},{"Start":"03:38.704 ","End":"03:40.320","Text":"within our neurons,"},{"Start":"03:40.320 ","End":"03:41.870","Text":"and these are super important."},{"Start":"03:41.870 ","End":"03:49.100","Text":"As you can see here, these are nerve cells or brain cells and axons and synopses,"},{"Start":"03:49.100 ","End":"03:52.370","Text":"and these are terms that we do not need to understand."},{"Start":"03:52.370 ","End":"03:54.260","Text":"If you\u0027ve heard them and you understood them, great,"},{"Start":"03:54.260 ","End":"03:58.610","Text":"but the bottom line is these little dots signify"},{"Start":"03:58.610 ","End":"04:05.545","Text":"the signaling molecules that go between cell to cell that is super important."},{"Start":"04:05.545 ","End":"04:08.675","Text":"Now, there\u0027s also glutamine and alanine as"},{"Start":"04:08.675 ","End":"04:11.494","Text":"other examples that are involved in nitrogen metabolism."},{"Start":"04:11.494 ","End":"04:16.370","Text":"Here, you see examples of 2 very differently structured amino acids."},{"Start":"04:16.370 ","End":"04:17.750","Text":"1 is small and simple,"},{"Start":"04:17.750 ","End":"04:19.220","Text":"1 is more complex,"},{"Start":"04:19.220 ","End":"04:22.655","Text":"they\u0027re both involved in nitrogen metabolism."},{"Start":"04:22.655 ","End":"04:24.110","Text":"This is just to show these are"},{"Start":"04:24.110 ","End":"04:32.215","Text":"very important molecules and they have different roles and different functions."},{"Start":"04:32.215 ","End":"04:36.659","Text":"From here, we move on to the third small biomolecule,"},{"Start":"04:36.659 ","End":"04:40.940","Text":"and this is the simple carbohydrate, a simple sugar."},{"Start":"04:40.940 ","End":"04:46.415","Text":"These are of 2 types: monosaccharides and disaccharides."},{"Start":"04:46.415 ","End":"04:48.590","Text":"Going back to the Greek language,"},{"Start":"04:48.590 ","End":"04:51.890","Text":"we have mono versus di,"},{"Start":"04:51.890 ","End":"04:56.930","Text":"and you see that saccharide is the common term for both."},{"Start":"04:56.930 ","End":"05:03.274","Text":"What this means, mono means single, sacrum, sugar."},{"Start":"05:03.274 ","End":"05:08.985","Text":"So it\u0027s a single molecule sugar like glucose."},{"Start":"05:08.985 ","End":"05:11.110","Text":"First is a di,"},{"Start":"05:11.110 ","End":"05:14.735","Text":"a double molecule sugar,"},{"Start":"05:14.735 ","End":"05:18.995","Text":"which means 2 sugar molecules,"},{"Start":"05:18.995 ","End":"05:25.655","Text":"like 2 glucoses that are bound together and that makes maltose."},{"Start":"05:25.655 ","End":"05:31.340","Text":"Maltose is a disaccharide and glucose is a monosaccharide."},{"Start":"05:31.340 ","End":"05:37.280","Text":"So you have 1 monosaccharide bound to another monosaccharide,"},{"Start":"05:37.280 ","End":"05:40.640","Text":"and that forms the disaccharide."},{"Start":"05:40.640 ","End":"05:43.160","Text":"Now, the disaccharide is not necessarily always"},{"Start":"05:43.160 ","End":"05:47.350","Text":"composed of 2 of the same monosaccharides."},{"Start":"05:47.350 ","End":"05:53.075","Text":"For example, you have a glucose with a fructose,"},{"Start":"05:53.075 ","End":"05:56.990","Text":"and these are both monosaccharides,"},{"Start":"05:56.990 ","End":"05:59.315","Text":"and you bring them together,"},{"Start":"05:59.315 ","End":"06:03.890","Text":"they bind, you have these 2 oxygens here with the hydrogen."},{"Start":"06:03.890 ","End":"06:06.005","Text":"What happens is,"},{"Start":"06:06.005 ","End":"06:16.715","Text":"this hydrogen along with 1 oxygen separate,"},{"Start":"06:16.715 ","End":"06:23.630","Text":"and now, this carbon instead of bond with this oxygen will be bound with this oxygen,"},{"Start":"06:23.630 ","End":"06:25.115","Text":"so if you see here,"},{"Start":"06:25.115 ","End":"06:27.905","Text":"you have now this 1 oxygen."},{"Start":"06:27.905 ","End":"06:33.860","Text":"You have H2O, a water molecule from this 1 hydrogen from this second hydrogen,"},{"Start":"06:33.860 ","End":"06:37.740","Text":"and from this 1 oxygen,"},{"Start":"06:37.740 ","End":"06:43.065","Text":"you\u0027ve now formed a disaccharide,"},{"Start":"06:43.065 ","End":"06:46.790","Text":"sucrose, which is composed of glucose and fructose."},{"Start":"06:46.790 ","End":"06:51.640","Text":"Before we talked about glucose and glucose make them maltose,"},{"Start":"06:51.640 ","End":"06:54.260","Text":"here it\u0027s 2 different monosaccharides,"},{"Start":"06:54.260 ","End":"06:56.545","Text":"glucose and fructose make a sucrose."},{"Start":"06:56.545 ","End":"06:59.750","Text":"Not telling you you need to memorize all of these things,"},{"Start":"06:59.750 ","End":"07:03.240","Text":"but these are examples."},{"Start":"07:04.030 ","End":"07:08.825","Text":"These consist of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen."},{"Start":"07:08.825 ","End":"07:15.915","Text":"All carbs, all carbohydrates are made of these 3 major components: C,"},{"Start":"07:15.915 ","End":"07:18.140","Text":"O, and H. If you see here,"},{"Start":"07:18.140 ","End":"07:21.590","Text":"it\u0027s all C, O, and H. Now,"},{"Start":"07:21.590 ","End":"07:28.160","Text":"there is a 2 to 1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in the carbohydrates."},{"Start":"07:28.160 ","End":"07:30.320","Text":"That\u0027s like water,right? Water, we know,"},{"Start":"07:30.320 ","End":"07:34.070","Text":"as mentioned just a minute ago, is H2O."},{"Start":"07:34.070 ","End":"07:36.815","Text":"Here you have that same ratio."},{"Start":"07:36.815 ","End":"07:40.320","Text":"If we count, let\u0027s say hydrogens,"},{"Start":"07:46.720 ","End":"07:50.135","Text":"1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12."},{"Start":"07:50.135 ","End":"07:53.940","Text":"Now, we look at how many oxygens,"},{"Start":"07:57.760 ","End":"08:01.205","Text":"1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6."},{"Start":"08:01.205 ","End":"08:06.590","Text":"6 oxygens to 12 hydrogens and that will always be the case because of the way"},{"Start":"08:06.590 ","End":"08:12.979","Text":"the chemical orientation or the chemical binding is between."},{"Start":"08:12.979 ","End":"08:20.675","Text":"Now, the carbohydrates can be either in a linear chain or in rings."},{"Start":"08:20.675 ","End":"08:24.950","Text":"This is actually the same molecule,"},{"Start":"08:24.950 ","End":"08:28.530","Text":"but in a different form."},{"Start":"08:28.530 ","End":"08:37.480","Text":"So what happens as this comes together and you have the association of the carbon 5 and"},{"Start":"08:37.480 ","End":"08:42.080","Text":"4 bend over and you have them"},{"Start":"08:42.080 ","End":"08:50.735","Text":"binding 5 to the first carbon as you see here,"},{"Start":"08:50.735 ","End":"08:53.765","Text":"and it becomes a ring."},{"Start":"08:53.765 ","End":"08:57.005","Text":"Now these play roles in cell signaling,"},{"Start":"08:57.005 ","End":"09:00.275","Text":"cell structure, and energy conversion."},{"Start":"09:00.275 ","End":"09:02.990","Text":"Here, you just see an example of glucose and"},{"Start":"09:02.990 ","End":"09:07.955","Text":"a ring form and in linear form and a chain form."},{"Start":"09:07.955 ","End":"09:12.050","Text":"Glucose is a monosaccharide involved in cell signaling,"},{"Start":"09:12.050 ","End":"09:15.110","Text":"cell structure and energy conversion."},{"Start":"09:15.110 ","End":"09:18.020","Text":"For example, oxidation of"},{"Start":"09:18.020 ","End":"09:22.220","Text":"glucose results in energy released that can drive other chemical reactions."},{"Start":"09:22.220 ","End":"09:25.737","Text":"We always think of eating sugar and becoming hyper,"},{"Start":"09:25.737 ","End":"09:31.090","Text":"it\u0027s because there is a breakdown and it provides energy."},{"Start":"09:31.090 ","End":"09:34.130","Text":"It is also the building block of cellulose."},{"Start":"09:34.130 ","End":"09:39.450","Text":"Cellulose is a structural component of plant cell walls."}],"ID":27013},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Small Biomolecules Part 3","Duration":"6m 4s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25700,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.360","Text":"Hi there. We\u0027re in Part III of small biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:03.360 ","End":"00:05.910","Text":"In this section we\u0027re going to talk about fatty acids,"},{"Start":"00:05.910 ","End":"00:10.515","Text":"the different types and several functions. Let\u0027s start."},{"Start":"00:10.515 ","End":"00:14.010","Text":"This is the 4th group of small biomolecules and if you remember,"},{"Start":"00:14.010 ","End":"00:16.080","Text":"we went through 1, 2, 3,"},{"Start":"00:16.080 ","End":"00:19.440","Text":"we\u0027ve got nucleotides, we\u0027ve got carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"00:19.440 ","End":"00:21.075","Text":"and we\u0027ve got amino acids,"},{"Start":"00:21.075 ","End":"00:24.640","Text":"and now you\u0027ve got fatty acids."},{"Start":"00:24.940 ","End":"00:28.625","Text":"Fatty acids are amphipathic molecules."},{"Start":"00:28.625 ","End":"00:30.230","Text":"Big term, scary,"},{"Start":"00:30.230 ","End":"00:31.670","Text":"but it means that they have"},{"Start":"00:31.670 ","End":"00:35.480","Text":"polar and non-polar chemical properties within the same molecule."},{"Start":"00:35.480 ","End":"00:36.890","Text":"Polar, think of the South pole,"},{"Start":"00:36.890 ","End":"00:39.920","Text":"the North pole, they have pull, gravity."},{"Start":"00:39.920 ","End":"00:49.535","Text":"They have an unevenness to it at the edges versus non-polar."},{"Start":"00:49.535 ","End":"00:53.825","Text":"Fatty acids consists of a carboxyl group, polar."},{"Start":"00:53.825 ","End":"00:56.675","Text":"We\u0027ve talked about carboxyl groups already."},{"Start":"00:56.675 ","End":"01:01.465","Text":"These are attached to a hydrocarbon chain, non-polar."},{"Start":"01:01.465 ","End":"01:04.745","Text":"There are different types of these fatty acids."},{"Start":"01:04.745 ","End":"01:11.263","Text":"There are saturated, and this means saturated with hydrogens,"},{"Start":"01:11.263 ","End":"01:19.205","Text":"and you have a whole set of carbons with hydrogens on every carbon."},{"Start":"01:19.205 ","End":"01:25.010","Text":"As you see, these are saturated and then you have unsaturated,"},{"Start":"01:25.010 ","End":"01:28.275","Text":"which means that there\u0027s an H, hydrogen that\u0027s missing."},{"Start":"01:28.275 ","End":"01:29.990","Text":"Wherever the hydrogen is missing,"},{"Start":"01:29.990 ","End":"01:32.630","Text":"it is able to bend or fold."},{"Start":"01:32.630 ","End":"01:34.325","Text":"As you see here,"},{"Start":"01:34.325 ","End":"01:37.130","Text":"it is not as linear and that means it doesn\u0027t"},{"Start":"01:37.130 ","End":"01:40.820","Text":"stack straight as a saturated fatty acid does."},{"Start":"01:40.820 ","End":"01:45.975","Text":"This lens to actual characteristics"},{"Start":"01:45.975 ","End":"01:51.895","Text":"of the lipids which fatty acids build and compose."},{"Start":"01:51.895 ","End":"01:54.015","Text":"You have saturated,"},{"Start":"01:54.015 ","End":"01:56.805","Text":"unsaturated, and polyunsaturated."},{"Start":"01:56.805 ","End":"02:01.295","Text":"That just means that there are multiple hydrogens that are missing."},{"Start":"02:01.295 ","End":"02:06.440","Text":"It will be even less structured than this unsaturated fatty acid."},{"Start":"02:06.440 ","End":"02:07.955","Text":"Well, I guess I shouldn\u0027t say less structured,"},{"Start":"02:07.955 ","End":"02:11.455","Text":"but it can have more folds and bends."},{"Start":"02:11.455 ","End":"02:14.870","Text":"Fatty acids have a primary role in organisms"},{"Start":"02:14.870 ","End":"02:18.049","Text":"as a component of the plasma membrane lipids."},{"Start":"02:18.049 ","End":"02:23.465","Text":"We talked about the lipids in the lipid bi-layer in the previous sections."},{"Start":"02:23.465 ","End":"02:28.820","Text":"A hydrophobic barrier separates the aqueous phases,"},{"Start":"02:28.820 ","End":"02:32.045","Text":"the liquid phases of the inside and outside of the cells."},{"Start":"02:32.045 ","End":"02:36.875","Text":"The water-based liquid that\u0027s outside the cell or within the cell,"},{"Start":"02:36.875 ","End":"02:39.440","Text":"and that is the cytoplasm or"},{"Start":"02:39.440 ","End":"02:46.145","Text":"the extracellular material are actually separated by this hydrophobic barrier,"},{"Start":"02:46.145 ","End":"02:52.940","Text":"by these lipids that have the fatty acids that has the polar versus non-polar."},{"Start":"02:52.940 ","End":"02:59.240","Text":"Here you see the fatty acid we talked about this one in the phospholipid bi-layer,"},{"Start":"02:59.240 ","End":"03:04.340","Text":"and we had the region that is actually hydrophobic,"},{"Start":"03:04.340 ","End":"03:08.345","Text":"means it can associate with water with"},{"Start":"03:08.345 ","End":"03:12.490","Text":"aqueous solution versus hydrophobic, which repels water."},{"Start":"03:12.490 ","End":"03:17.105","Text":"You have this membrane that because it has the polar and non-polar,"},{"Start":"03:17.105 ","End":"03:23.370","Text":"this is the hydrophilic section."},{"Start":"03:23.370 ","End":"03:25.925","Text":"I think I confused these and I said hydrophobic for both,"},{"Start":"03:25.925 ","End":"03:31.115","Text":"but the polar and non-polar is what allows to create this barrier."},{"Start":"03:31.115 ","End":"03:35.415","Text":"Additional functions in eukaryotic cells."},{"Start":"03:35.415 ","End":"03:40.370","Text":"There\u0027s an intracellular membrane consisting of fatty acids derived lipids,"},{"Start":"03:40.370 ","End":"03:45.440","Text":"and these include for different organelles the nuclear membrane,"},{"Start":"03:45.440 ","End":"03:48.800","Text":"we talked about the nucleus has a nuclear membrane."},{"Start":"03:48.800 ","End":"03:53.300","Text":"You have the inner and outer mitochondrial and chloroplast membranes."},{"Start":"03:53.300 ","End":"04:00.535","Text":"You have the mitochondria that also has this membrane that\u0027s composed of fatty acids."},{"Start":"04:00.535 ","End":"04:04.750","Text":"You have endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus associated membranes."},{"Start":"04:04.750 ","End":"04:09.575","Text":"Remember these are all organelles that we talked about that exist in"},{"Start":"04:09.575 ","End":"04:14.855","Text":"eukaryotic cells and these membrane-bound organelles"},{"Start":"04:14.855 ","End":"04:19.000","Text":"have membranes that are composed of fatty acids."},{"Start":"04:19.000 ","End":"04:23.645","Text":"Furthermore, they have a function of energy storage."},{"Start":"04:23.645 ","End":"04:28.750","Text":"Chemical energy is released upon their oxidation in mitochondria."},{"Start":"04:28.750 ","End":"04:37.055","Text":"Basically there\u0027s a chemical reaction that releases chemical energy from fatty acids."},{"Start":"04:37.055 ","End":"04:40.295","Text":"When you talk about fat molecule and fat cells,"},{"Start":"04:40.295 ","End":"04:43.970","Text":"that they have the ability to give us"},{"Start":"04:43.970 ","End":"04:48.350","Text":"energy if we\u0027re doing certain exercise and we\u0027ve talked about the fat burn phase,"},{"Start":"04:48.350 ","End":"04:50.750","Text":"it\u0027s because these fatty acid,"},{"Start":"04:50.750 ","End":"04:57.300","Text":"these molecules allow for release of energy within the mitochondria."},{"Start":"04:57.950 ","End":"05:00.320","Text":"We now in Part III,"},{"Start":"05:00.320 ","End":"05:02.270","Text":"had described fatty acids,"},{"Start":"05:02.270 ","End":"05:04.220","Text":"the different types and several functions."},{"Start":"05:04.220 ","End":"05:09.005","Text":"We will further talk about this in depth in a few chapters down the line."},{"Start":"05:09.005 ","End":"05:11.645","Text":"In total, we talked about"},{"Start":"05:11.645 ","End":"05:16.130","Text":"small biomolecules covering the 4 major classes of biological molecules,"},{"Start":"05:16.130 ","End":"05:23.990","Text":"and we had these 4 fatty acids that we talked about then the simple carbs,"},{"Start":"05:23.990 ","End":"05:28.325","Text":"the amino acids, and the nucleotides."},{"Start":"05:28.325 ","End":"05:30.485","Text":"Then all of these 4 major classes,"},{"Start":"05:30.485 ","End":"05:33.830","Text":"we described specifically nucleotides, their components,"},{"Start":"05:33.830 ","End":"05:37.670","Text":"basic structure and the 2 types of nucleic acids, the RNA and DNA,"},{"Start":"05:37.670 ","End":"05:40.070","Text":"we established the components and structure of amino acids,"},{"Start":"05:40.070 ","End":"05:41.970","Text":"their function and how they differ from each other."},{"Start":"05:41.970 ","End":"05:44.240","Text":"We talked about the essential and non-essential amino acids"},{"Start":"05:44.240 ","End":"05:46.985","Text":"and the 20 amino acids total that are needed."},{"Start":"05:46.985 ","End":"05:48.560","Text":"We defined simple carbs,"},{"Start":"05:48.560 ","End":"05:50.660","Text":"the 2 types and examples for each type,"},{"Start":"05:50.660 ","End":"05:54.890","Text":"and we had monosaccharides and disaccharides as well as their various functions,"},{"Start":"05:54.890 ","End":"05:57.300","Text":"and last but not least,"},{"Start":"05:57.300 ","End":"05:58.670","Text":"we described the fatty acids,"},{"Start":"05:58.670 ","End":"06:01.220","Text":"the different types, and several functions."},{"Start":"06:01.220 ","End":"06:05.430","Text":"From here you can test your knowledge in the exercises."}],"ID":27015},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 12","Duration":"3m 53s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25692,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.860 ","End":"00:07.125","Text":"Hey all, welcome to Small Biomolecules exercise 1 of this."},{"Start":"00:07.125 ","End":"00:12.090","Text":"The 4 major biological molecules include a,"},{"Start":"00:12.090 ","End":"00:15.525","Text":"carbohydrates, saccharides, lipids, proteins."},{"Start":"00:15.525 ","End":"00:16.950","Text":"B, carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"00:16.950 ","End":"00:19.230","Text":"lipids proteins, amino acids."},{"Start":"00:19.230 ","End":"00:20.700","Text":"C, carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"00:20.700 ","End":"00:23.220","Text":"fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides."},{"Start":"00:23.220 ","End":"00:25.020","Text":"D, none of the above."},{"Start":"00:25.020 ","End":"00:29.760","Text":"Well, we see all of them include carbohydrates."},{"Start":"00:29.760 ","End":"00:32.520","Text":"Carbohydrates we talked about,"},{"Start":"00:32.520 ","End":"00:36.450","Text":"it is one of the 4 major biological molecules."},{"Start":"00:36.450 ","End":"00:43.735","Text":"We had defined these as being simple sugars that can be one of 2 types,"},{"Start":"00:43.735 ","End":"00:50.180","Text":"monosaccharides or disaccharides, and that hints to here,"},{"Start":"00:50.180 ","End":"00:55.100","Text":"saccharides, the term for sugar in Greek."},{"Start":"00:55.100 ","End":"00:57.379","Text":"This is actually redundant,"},{"Start":"00:57.379 ","End":"01:00.890","Text":"which is already a hint that this is not necessarily"},{"Start":"01:00.890 ","End":"01:05.090","Text":"the correct answer because these are basically the same,"},{"Start":"01:05.090 ","End":"01:09.650","Text":"this is part of the types of carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"01:09.650 ","End":"01:13.300","Text":"a term that\u0027s synonymous for sugar."},{"Start":"01:13.430 ","End":"01:15.735","Text":"Just going to continue with a,"},{"Start":"01:15.735 ","End":"01:21.120","Text":"we have lipids, the term is familiar,"},{"Start":"01:21.120 ","End":"01:23.370","Text":"and proteins, also the term is familiar."},{"Start":"01:23.370 ","End":"01:26.770","Text":"But I would say we know saccharides is incorrect,"},{"Start":"01:26.770 ","End":"01:31.805","Text":"and actually, we know that lipids are composed of fatty acids."},{"Start":"01:31.805 ","End":"01:36.560","Text":"We talked about the lipid bi-layer that is made of fatty acids,"},{"Start":"01:36.560 ","End":"01:38.420","Text":"and those are the small biological molecules,"},{"Start":"01:38.420 ","End":"01:42.050","Text":"and proteins are made of amino acids, therefore, a,"},{"Start":"01:42.050 ","End":"01:46.380","Text":"on every level, since this is synonymous, is incorrect,"},{"Start":"01:46.380 ","End":"01:51.240","Text":"and this is actually not a small bio molecule,"},{"Start":"01:51.240 ","End":"01:53.910","Text":"so a is incorrect."},{"Start":"01:53.910 ","End":"01:58.564","Text":"Let\u0027s move to b, we have carbohydrates we\u0027ve already established,"},{"Start":"01:58.564 ","End":"01:59.795","Text":"okay, that one\u0027s good,"},{"Start":"01:59.795 ","End":"02:01.750","Text":"lipids we just mentioned,"},{"Start":"02:01.750 ","End":"02:06.680","Text":"now it is basically a larger molecule,"},{"Start":"02:06.680 ","End":"02:10.160","Text":"a macromolecule, not a small biomolecule."},{"Start":"02:10.160 ","End":"02:14.210","Text":"Proteins, we also said made of amino acids,"},{"Start":"02:14.210 ","End":"02:16.305","Text":"also not a small biomolecule,"},{"Start":"02:16.305 ","End":"02:19.005","Text":"and then we have amino acids."},{"Start":"02:19.005 ","End":"02:21.120","Text":"Well, yeah, this is a biomolecule,"},{"Start":"02:21.120 ","End":"02:23.250","Text":"this is the building block of proteins,"},{"Start":"02:23.250 ","End":"02:26.465","Text":"and when we talked about the 4 major biological molecules,"},{"Start":"02:26.465 ","End":"02:28.730","Text":"the major small biological molecules,"},{"Start":"02:28.730 ","End":"02:31.555","Text":"we talked that these are the building blocks."},{"Start":"02:31.555 ","End":"02:34.320","Text":"These 2 seem right,"},{"Start":"02:34.320 ","End":"02:37.380","Text":"but these 2 are incorrect,"},{"Start":"02:37.380 ","End":"02:40.140","Text":"b is therefore incorrect."},{"Start":"02:40.140 ","End":"02:41.580","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about c,"},{"Start":"02:41.580 ","End":"02:43.760","Text":"we said carbohydrates are right,"},{"Start":"02:43.760 ","End":"02:45.800","Text":"we have fatty acids,"},{"Start":"02:45.800 ","End":"02:47.440","Text":"amino acids, and nucleotides."},{"Start":"02:47.440 ","End":"02:49.895","Text":"Well, we mentioned that amino acids are right,"},{"Start":"02:49.895 ","End":"02:51.470","Text":"and when we talk about lipids,"},{"Start":"02:51.470 ","End":"02:54.530","Text":"we said fatty acids are the building blocks of lipids,"},{"Start":"02:54.530 ","End":"02:58.850","Text":"so that is correct, and then we haven\u0027t seen this yet about nucleotides,"},{"Start":"02:58.850 ","End":"03:03.315","Text":"and nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids."},{"Start":"03:03.315 ","End":"03:05.270","Text":"All these are correct,"},{"Start":"03:05.270 ","End":"03:08.689","Text":"therefore, I would say c is correct."},{"Start":"03:08.689 ","End":"03:11.060","Text":"Then if we look at d, well,"},{"Start":"03:11.060 ","End":"03:12.365","Text":"none of the above,"},{"Start":"03:12.365 ","End":"03:14.210","Text":"we just said c seems correct,"},{"Start":"03:14.210 ","End":"03:15.815","Text":"so I would say d is incorrect,"},{"Start":"03:15.815 ","End":"03:20.730","Text":"and that would give me c as our correct answer."},{"Start":"03:20.730 ","End":"03:23.450","Text":"Just to say small biomolecules."},{"Start":"03:23.450 ","End":"03:30.660","Text":"The next section we\u0027ll talk about macromolecules, complex molecules,"},{"Start":"03:30.660 ","End":"03:36.880","Text":"and that\u0027s where we will talk about what these building blocks make,"},{"Start":"03:36.880 ","End":"03:41.305","Text":"we already mentioned it a little bit in this section, but here we have it."},{"Start":"03:41.305 ","End":"03:44.960","Text":"The 4 major biological molecules include carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"03:44.960 ","End":"03:46.460","Text":"fatty acids, amino acids,"},{"Start":"03:46.460 ","End":"03:49.280","Text":"and nucleotides, and there you have it,"},{"Start":"03:49.280 ","End":"03:52.440","Text":"let\u0027s meet at the next exercise."}],"ID":27016},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 13","Duration":"2m 19s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25693,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:01.970 ","End":"00:06.240","Text":"Exercise in small biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:06.240 ","End":"00:10.800","Text":"The building block of proteins is: a, nucleotides,"},{"Start":"00:10.800 ","End":"00:13.500","Text":"b, disaccharides, c,"},{"Start":"00:13.500 ","End":"00:16.860","Text":"amino acids, d, tRNA."},{"Start":"00:16.860 ","End":"00:22.245","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about this. Nucleotides. We mentioned"},{"Start":"00:22.245 ","End":"00:28.190","Text":"nucleotides as being able to be changed into nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"00:28.190 ","End":"00:30.440","Text":"and we mentioned RNA and DNA."},{"Start":"00:30.440 ","End":"00:32.300","Text":"These are not proteins,"},{"Start":"00:32.300 ","End":"00:35.775","Text":"therefore, a, would be incorrect."},{"Start":"00:35.775 ","End":"00:38.010","Text":"Disaccharides."},{"Start":"00:38.010 ","End":"00:41.025","Text":"We mentioned disaccharides,"},{"Start":"00:41.025 ","End":"00:45.720","Text":"this is 2, saccharide is sugar."},{"Start":"00:45.720 ","End":"00:48.080","Text":"We mentioned these as simple sugars."},{"Start":"00:48.080 ","End":"00:54.700","Text":"1 of the 2 types of simple sugars we have disaccharides and monosaccharides."},{"Start":"00:54.700 ","End":"00:57.320","Text":"These are sugars that are composed of"},{"Start":"00:57.320 ","End":"01:01.985","Text":"either 1 basic sugar molecule or 2 sugar molecules,"},{"Start":"01:01.985 ","End":"01:05.495","Text":"so these make carbs and not proteins."},{"Start":"01:05.495 ","End":"01:08.210","Text":"Again, b is incorrect."},{"Start":"01:08.210 ","End":"01:11.825","Text":"Then we talked about amino acids."},{"Start":"01:11.825 ","End":"01:18.710","Text":"We mentioned amino acids and their sequences are what actually can define proteins."},{"Start":"01:18.710 ","End":"01:22.010","Text":"Therefore, this sounds like this is the correct answer because"},{"Start":"01:22.010 ","End":"01:25.280","Text":"amino acids are the building blocks of"},{"Start":"01:25.280 ","End":"01:33.260","Text":"proteins and you have 20 amino acids that their whole arrangement,"},{"Start":"01:33.260 ","End":"01:35.180","Text":"what they are, the different kinds,"},{"Start":"01:35.180 ","End":"01:36.410","Text":"the different amino acids,"},{"Start":"01:36.410 ","End":"01:40.085","Text":"how they\u0027re linked together defines the proteins."},{"Start":"01:40.085 ","End":"01:42.140","Text":"This sounds like this would be the correct answer,"},{"Start":"01:42.140 ","End":"01:44.300","Text":"but let\u0027s just go over this tRNA."},{"Start":"01:44.300 ","End":"01:46.910","Text":"We didn\u0027t specifically talk about what tRNAs are,"},{"Start":"01:46.910 ","End":"01:48.530","Text":"but it is an RNA."},{"Start":"01:48.530 ","End":"01:54.410","Text":"In general, RNA is a nucleic acid which is composed of nucleotides."},{"Start":"01:54.410 ","End":"01:57.380","Text":"Therefore, this doesn\u0027t sound like could be the correct answer."},{"Start":"01:57.380 ","End":"02:03.515","Text":"So what we would say is tRNA is incorrect and that leaves us with amino acids."},{"Start":"02:03.515 ","End":"02:07.955","Text":"Amino acids, these are the building blocks of proteins."},{"Start":"02:07.955 ","End":"02:13.565","Text":"These together are chained and linked and compose our proteins."},{"Start":"02:13.565 ","End":"02:17.900","Text":"That is the answer to this exercise."},{"Start":"02:17.900 ","End":"02:20.610","Text":"See you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27017},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 14","Duration":"2m 38s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25694,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.410 ","End":"00:06.090","Text":"Welcome back to this exercise on small biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:06.090 ","End":"00:10.725","Text":"Which molecule or molecules are monosaccharides?"},{"Start":"00:10.725 ","End":"00:13.370","Text":"Monosaccharides, what did we say this is?"},{"Start":"00:13.370 ","End":"00:20.380","Text":"This is simple sugar."},{"Start":"00:20.510 ","End":"00:28.380","Text":"Mono stands for 1, 1 sugar molecule."},{"Start":"00:28.380 ","End":"00:32.100","Text":"Fructose. We mentioned fructose,"},{"Start":"00:32.100 ","End":"00:33.600","Text":"we didn\u0027t really talk about what it is,"},{"Start":"00:33.600 ","End":"00:37.560","Text":"it\u0027s actually a sugar molecule in fruit."},{"Start":"00:37.560 ","End":"00:42.020","Text":"But we did say it is a monosaccharide and we mentioned"},{"Start":"00:42.020 ","End":"00:46.880","Text":"it alongside another monosaccharide, another simple sugar,"},{"Start":"00:46.880 ","End":"00:55.955","Text":"glucose, because we said that together when these bind they form sucrose,"},{"Start":"00:55.955 ","End":"01:01.480","Text":"which is a disaccharide."},{"Start":"01:01.480 ","End":"01:06.290","Text":"What we have here is our fructose,"},{"Start":"01:06.290 ","End":"01:11.240","Text":"monosaccharide, a simple sugar that is found in fruits."},{"Start":"01:11.240 ","End":"01:12.777","Text":"We have glucose,"},{"Start":"01:12.777 ","End":"01:16.450","Text":"our simple sugar, this gives us energy."},{"Start":"01:16.450 ","End":"01:20.220","Text":"We also have ribose which we talked about."},{"Start":"01:20.220 ","End":"01:23.810","Text":"We talked about this as a monosaccharide"},{"Start":"01:23.810 ","End":"01:27.560","Text":"that is found as part of the component of nucleotides."},{"Start":"01:27.560 ","End":"01:33.980","Text":"Remember the 5-carbon sugar that is in the center of a nucleotide,"},{"Start":"01:33.980 ","End":"01:40.100","Text":"and it was something that we mentioned as defining."},{"Start":"01:40.100 ","End":"01:45.845","Text":"Nucleotides that are chained together with ribose make the nucleic acid RNA,"},{"Start":"01:45.845 ","End":"01:48.770","Text":"so this is also a monosaccharide."},{"Start":"01:48.770 ","End":"01:53.244","Text":"This tells us that fructose is a monosaccharide,"},{"Start":"01:53.244 ","End":"01:55.080","Text":"glucose is a monosaccharide."},{"Start":"01:55.080 ","End":"01:58.460","Text":"We also mentioned glucose as similar to"},{"Start":"01:58.460 ","End":"02:02.000","Text":"fructose and glucose coming together to form sucrose."},{"Start":"02:02.000 ","End":"02:07.190","Text":"We had mentioned 2 glucose molecules"},{"Start":"02:07.190 ","End":"02:13.070","Text":"coming together to form the disaccharide mannose,"},{"Start":"02:13.070 ","End":"02:16.376","Text":"which means a monosaccharide,"},{"Start":"02:16.376 ","End":"02:21.750","Text":"a monosaccharide forming a disaccharide."},{"Start":"02:21.940 ","End":"02:27.230","Text":"Monosaccharide ribose, the monosaccharide as part of the nucleotide and"},{"Start":"02:27.230 ","End":"02:31.782","Text":"that gives us that d. All of the above are monosaccharides,"},{"Start":"02:31.782 ","End":"02:34.775","Text":"therefore d is our correct answer."},{"Start":"02:34.775 ","End":"02:39.300","Text":"Thanks for playing and let see you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27018},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 15","Duration":"2m 6s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26133,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.770 ","End":"00:06.150","Text":"Small biomolecules, and here we are with another exercise."},{"Start":"00:06.150 ","End":"00:08.475","Text":"This exercise is split into 2 parts."},{"Start":"00:08.475 ","End":"00:12.345","Text":"Part 1, what are the 5 nucleotide bases?"},{"Start":"00:12.345 ","End":"00:15.460","Text":"Remember we mentioned the movie GATTACA."},{"Start":"00:17.480 ","End":"00:22.740","Text":"If we look at it, you have G,"},{"Start":"00:22.740 ","End":"00:26.310","Text":"you have A,"},{"Start":"00:26.310 ","End":"00:30.360","Text":"you have T,"},{"Start":"00:30.360 ","End":"00:35.850","Text":"and you have C. These are 4,"},{"Start":"00:35.850 ","End":"00:37.545","Text":"but we know there\u0027s 5."},{"Start":"00:37.545 ","End":"00:39.105","Text":"What is the last one?"},{"Start":"00:39.105 ","End":"00:49.205","Text":"U, that is only found in RNA and replaces the T. Our 5 nucleotide."},{"Start":"00:49.205 ","End":"00:53.615","Text":"Bases are adenine, guanine,"},{"Start":"00:53.615 ","End":"00:59.635","Text":"cytosine, thymine, and uracil."},{"Start":"00:59.635 ","End":"01:05.235","Text":"A, G, C, T, U, UGATTACA."},{"Start":"01:05.235 ","End":"01:13.430","Text":"Part 2, which bases are exclusive to either DNA or RNA and specify?"},{"Start":"01:13.430 ","End":"01:20.565","Text":"We had mentioned that guanine are in both, Cs in both."},{"Start":"01:20.565 ","End":"01:26.105","Text":"To continue which bases are exclusive to either DNA or RNA and specify."},{"Start":"01:26.105 ","End":"01:28.580","Text":"Well, adenine from GATTACA,"},{"Start":"01:28.580 ","End":"01:31.680","Text":"we have A in DNA,"},{"Start":"01:31.680 ","End":"01:33.810","Text":"but we also have A in RNA."},{"Start":"01:33.810 ","End":"01:37.125","Text":"G, we have both in DNA and RNA."},{"Start":"01:37.125 ","End":"01:40.700","Text":"C, we have both in DNA and RNA."},{"Start":"01:40.700 ","End":"01:43.705","Text":"Thymine we have in DNA,"},{"Start":"01:43.705 ","End":"01:46.545","Text":"so that one is exclusive."},{"Start":"01:46.545 ","End":"01:52.130","Text":"Uracil is exclusive, and we have that in RNA."},{"Start":"01:52.130 ","End":"01:57.020","Text":"The bases that are exclusive to either DNA or RNA are thymine and"},{"Start":"01:57.020 ","End":"02:02.825","Text":"uracil with thymine being in DNA and uracil in RNA."},{"Start":"02:02.825 ","End":"02:07.410","Text":"With that, we\u0027ve finished this exercise and moving on to the next."}],"ID":27019},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 16","Duration":"3m 32s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25696,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.615","Text":"Hi there. Here we are testing our knowledge about"},{"Start":"00:03.615 ","End":"00:09.700","Text":"this section on small biomolecules within cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:09.950 ","End":"00:14.070","Text":"Which is not a component of an amino acid?"},{"Start":"00:14.070 ","End":"00:19.170","Text":"We talked about amino acids that they have 3 main groups"},{"Start":"00:19.170 ","End":"00:25.140","Text":"within the structure and we want to find which is not a component of an amino acid."},{"Start":"00:25.140 ","End":"00:28.335","Text":"We have A, a central carbon,"},{"Start":"00:28.335 ","End":"00:31.920","Text":"B, an amino group, C,"},{"Start":"00:31.920 ","End":"00:34.665","Text":"a carboxyl group, D,"},{"Start":"00:34.665 ","End":"00:36.975","Text":"a phosphate group, E,"},{"Start":"00:36.975 ","End":"00:39.615","Text":"an R group or side chain."},{"Start":"00:39.615 ","End":"00:45.649","Text":"If you remember, we did talk about a central carbon that\u0027s in the middle."},{"Start":"00:45.649 ","End":"00:50.510","Text":"We also said that this has something attached to it,"},{"Start":"00:50.510 ","End":"00:53.675","Text":"a side chain or an R group,"},{"Start":"00:53.675 ","End":"00:58.730","Text":"which defines and signifies the amino acids."},{"Start":"00:58.730 ","End":"01:02.885","Text":"We have 20 amino acids and the difference between them is this R group."},{"Start":"01:02.885 ","End":"01:08.970","Text":"What are the other 2 basic parts of this amino acids?"},{"Start":"01:08.970 ","End":"01:10.490","Text":"We have the central carbon."},{"Start":"01:10.490 ","End":"01:14.690","Text":"We know this is a component of an amino acid therefore,"},{"Start":"01:14.690 ","End":"01:17.150","Text":"it is an incorrect answer because we\u0027re"},{"Start":"01:17.150 ","End":"01:19.745","Text":"looking for something that isn\u0027t a component of an amino acid."},{"Start":"01:19.745 ","End":"01:21.985","Text":"This is 1, therefore it\u0027s not group."},{"Start":"01:21.985 ","End":"01:27.765","Text":"An amino group, think of a word amino and amino acid."},{"Start":"01:27.765 ","End":"01:32.165","Text":"An amino group, we talked as an amine group."},{"Start":"01:32.165 ","End":"01:40.485","Text":"So yes, we do have an amine group and we talked about having a nitrogen in it."},{"Start":"01:40.485 ","End":"01:43.220","Text":"So this is also part of an amino acid,"},{"Start":"01:43.220 ","End":"01:46.690","Text":"therefore, this is an incorrect answer."},{"Start":"01:46.690 ","End":"01:49.965","Text":"We know that it\u0027s not A, it\u0027s not B,"},{"Start":"01:49.965 ","End":"01:54.934","Text":"and we also talked about there being a carboxyl group."},{"Start":"01:54.934 ","End":"01:59.120","Text":"The third component of the amino acid is the carboxyl group."},{"Start":"01:59.120 ","End":"02:02.270","Text":"Therefore, this is not the correct answer,"},{"Start":"02:02.270 ","End":"02:04.730","Text":"and C is marked off."},{"Start":"02:04.730 ","End":"02:07.250","Text":"Then we\u0027re talking about a phosphate group."},{"Start":"02:07.250 ","End":"02:11.270","Text":"Well, we talked about phosphate group and monophosphates,"},{"Start":"02:11.270 ","End":"02:13.340","Text":"triphosphates, but if you remember,"},{"Start":"02:13.340 ","End":"02:20.190","Text":"we talked about these as an ATP, adenosine triphosphate."},{"Start":"02:20.190 ","End":"02:25.130","Text":"Adenosine, key hint, adenine."},{"Start":"02:25.130 ","End":"02:33.290","Text":"This is a nucleotide so this is not part of the amino acid,"},{"Start":"02:33.290 ","End":"02:37.670","Text":"therefore this may be the right answer, let\u0027s just check."},{"Start":"02:37.670 ","End":"02:40.580","Text":"We also have the R group or side chain."},{"Start":"02:40.580 ","End":"02:45.410","Text":"But as we said, in the amino acid to the central carbon,"},{"Start":"02:45.410 ","End":"02:50.755","Text":"we have an R group or side chain that defines what the amino acid is,"},{"Start":"02:50.755 ","End":"02:54.060","Text":"alanine versus glutamate, etc."},{"Start":"02:54.060 ","End":"02:58.385","Text":"So this is a component of amino acid therefore this also is an incorrect answer."},{"Start":"02:58.385 ","End":"03:03.305","Text":"Therefore, this leaves us with D as the correct answer,"},{"Start":"03:03.305 ","End":"03:07.025","Text":"meaning it is not a component of an amino acid."},{"Start":"03:07.025 ","End":"03:11.300","Text":"You see here the central carbon, this is A."},{"Start":"03:11.300 ","End":"03:13.655","Text":"You have the amino group,"},{"Start":"03:13.655 ","End":"03:18.145","Text":"also called amine group with the nitrogen, this is B."},{"Start":"03:18.145 ","End":"03:23.570","Text":"You have the carboxyl group which is C and you have"},{"Start":"03:23.570 ","End":"03:26.270","Text":"the R group side chain that\u0027s attached to"},{"Start":"03:26.270 ","End":"03:29.855","Text":"the central carbon and what we don\u0027t have is the phosphate group."},{"Start":"03:29.855 ","End":"03:32.400","Text":"There you have it."}],"ID":27020},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 17","Duration":"3m 12s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25697,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.950 ","End":"00:05.380","Text":"Seeing what we remember from small biomolecules,"},{"Start":"00:05.380 ","End":"00:08.440","Text":"this is an additional exercise."},{"Start":"00:08.440 ","End":"00:11.440","Text":"What are the 3 types of fatty acids?"},{"Start":"00:11.440 ","End":"00:13.850","Text":"We have a, saturated,"},{"Start":"00:13.850 ","End":"00:18.010","Text":"polysaturated, and unsaturated."},{"Start":"00:21.410 ","End":"00:24.855","Text":"Then we have b, saturated,"},{"Start":"00:24.855 ","End":"00:28.525","Text":"unsaturated, and polyunsaturated."},{"Start":"00:28.525 ","End":"00:31.545","Text":"We have c, saturated,"},{"Start":"00:31.545 ","End":"00:35.505","Text":"polysaturated, and polyunsaturated."},{"Start":"00:35.505 ","End":"00:37.425","Text":"D, none of the above."},{"Start":"00:37.425 ","End":"00:39.390","Text":"We see all of them have saturated."},{"Start":"00:39.390 ","End":"00:41.260","Text":"If you remember, we said saturated,"},{"Start":"00:41.260 ","End":"00:44.070","Text":"that refers to hydrogen."},{"Start":"00:44.070 ","End":"00:47.885","Text":"It is saturated in hydrogen atoms."},{"Start":"00:47.885 ","End":"00:54.080","Text":"Now then we have a and c mentioned polysaturated,"},{"Start":"00:54.080 ","End":"01:00.255","Text":"meaning more saturated in H sounds confusing."},{"Start":"01:00.255 ","End":"01:05.265","Text":"Then we have an a and b, unsaturated."},{"Start":"01:05.265 ","End":"01:10.005","Text":"So unsaturated that means that there is hydrogen missing."},{"Start":"01:10.005 ","End":"01:16.340","Text":"If you remember, we talked about when you have an unsaturated fatty acid,"},{"Start":"01:16.340 ","End":"01:17.870","Text":"a hydrogen is missing."},{"Start":"01:17.870 ","End":"01:23.195","Text":"It means where it\u0027s missing it can actually bend so it doesn\u0027t stack as well."},{"Start":"01:23.195 ","End":"01:25.790","Text":"We did talk about unsaturated."},{"Start":"01:25.790 ","End":"01:28.865","Text":"So this is correct."},{"Start":"01:28.865 ","End":"01:31.775","Text":"Unsaturated is correct."},{"Start":"01:31.775 ","End":"01:38.825","Text":"But then it\u0027s a question of polyunsaturated and polysaturated which is correct?"},{"Start":"01:38.825 ","End":"01:44.180","Text":"Well, if we say saturated means that it\u0027s saturated with hydrogen bonds,"},{"Start":"01:44.180 ","End":"01:47.965","Text":"let\u0027s say your wallet is full."},{"Start":"01:47.965 ","End":"01:50.540","Text":"Can you say it\u0027s multiple full?"},{"Start":"01:50.540 ","End":"01:51.920","Text":"Well, no, it\u0027s full."},{"Start":"01:51.920 ","End":"01:56.335","Text":"Versus if it\u0027s unsaturated, it\u0027s lacking."},{"Start":"01:56.335 ","End":"02:00.285","Text":"We can say it\u0027s lacking a lot."},{"Start":"02:00.285 ","End":"02:03.665","Text":"Poly means many in Greek,"},{"Start":"02:03.665 ","End":"02:06.440","Text":"so it\u0027s lacking a lot and we didn\u0027t"},{"Start":"02:06.440 ","End":"02:10.490","Text":"mention that you can have unsaturated where there\u0027s a hydrogen missing"},{"Start":"02:10.490 ","End":"02:18.530","Text":"or polyunsaturated where there are several hydrogens missing in the fatty acid chain,"},{"Start":"02:18.530 ","End":"02:25.855","Text":"which means it will have multiple bands and actually it\u0027s more flexible."},{"Start":"02:25.855 ","End":"02:30.710","Text":"You would say this is incorrect and therefore,"},{"Start":"02:30.710 ","End":"02:36.555","Text":"we have saturated, unsaturated, polyunsaturated."},{"Start":"02:36.555 ","End":"02:38.390","Text":"B sounds right. A,"},{"Start":"02:38.390 ","End":"02:41.760","Text":"we don\u0027t have polysaturated so that oned is incorrect."},{"Start":"02:41.760 ","End":"02:46.090","Text":"Saturated, unsaturated, polyunsaturated."},{"Start":"02:46.090 ","End":"02:49.305","Text":"B, sounds correct, c,"},{"Start":"02:49.305 ","End":"02:51.795","Text":"incorrect therefore d,"},{"Start":"02:51.795 ","End":"02:54.015","Text":"is incorrect as well."},{"Start":"02:54.015 ","End":"02:55.990","Text":"We\u0027re going with b,"},{"Start":"02:55.990 ","End":"02:57.710","Text":"you have saturated fatty acid,"},{"Start":"02:57.710 ","End":"02:59.480","Text":"it\u0027s saturated with hydrogen bonds."},{"Start":"02:59.480 ","End":"03:03.725","Text":"Unsaturated fatty acid missing a hydrogen and"},{"Start":"03:03.725 ","End":"03:09.470","Text":"polyunsaturated would be missing a number of hydrogens in different places."},{"Start":"03:09.470 ","End":"03:12.360","Text":"See you in the next section."}],"ID":27021},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Cell Macromolecules","Duration":"12m 39s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25703,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:06.090","Text":"Hi there. We talked about small biomolecules in the cell and now we are moving"},{"Start":"00:06.090 ","End":"00:11.985","Text":"onto cell macromolecules as part of covering the topic in cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:11.985 ","End":"00:13.320","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:13.320 ","End":"00:15.945","Text":"you will be able to define a macromolecule,"},{"Start":"00:15.945 ","End":"00:18.680","Text":"understand the synthesis of macromolecules,"},{"Start":"00:18.680 ","End":"00:21.995","Text":"list the 4 major classes of biological macromolecules,"},{"Start":"00:21.995 ","End":"00:25.110","Text":"and name the most abundant polymers in cells."},{"Start":"00:25.110 ","End":"00:27.170","Text":"Let\u0027s start."},{"Start":"00:27.170 ","End":"00:32.960","Text":"Small biomolecules can be arranged into polymers which create macromolecules."},{"Start":"00:32.960 ","End":"00:34.850","Text":"What does this actually mean?"},{"Start":"00:34.850 ","End":"00:40.640","Text":"Polymers are large molecules made by bonding a series of building blocks."},{"Start":"00:40.640 ","End":"00:46.095","Text":"Building blocks that are chemically linked together make up polymers."},{"Start":"00:46.095 ","End":"00:47.870","Text":"Going back to what we said before,"},{"Start":"00:47.870 ","End":"00:51.530","Text":"small biomolecules can be arranged into polymers,"},{"Start":"00:51.530 ","End":"00:54.830","Text":"and polymers are large molecules."},{"Start":"00:54.830 ","End":"00:58.630","Text":"This is actually in that sense, macromolecules."},{"Start":"00:58.630 ","End":"01:02.340","Text":"Macromolecules, also known as polymers,"},{"Start":"01:02.340 ","End":"01:07.280","Text":"are large organic molecules that are necessary for life."},{"Start":"01:07.280 ","End":"01:10.130","Text":"We\u0027ve already covered many different terms"},{"Start":"01:10.130 ","End":"01:12.590","Text":"used in biology that come from the Greek language,"},{"Start":"01:12.590 ","End":"01:14.705","Text":"and here we go again."},{"Start":"01:14.705 ","End":"01:19.610","Text":"Poly of polymers means many while mer means parts,"},{"Start":"01:19.610 ","End":"01:23.600","Text":"so polymers are composed of many parts."},{"Start":"01:23.600 ","End":"01:30.090","Text":"Now, macromolecules are made up of single units known as monomers."},{"Start":"01:30.090 ","End":"01:33.795","Text":"We\u0027re back to, we have polymers, many parts,"},{"Start":"01:33.795 ","End":"01:36.515","Text":"and here we have monomers,"},{"Start":"01:36.515 ","End":"01:39.755","Text":"mono, single, 1 part."},{"Start":"01:39.755 ","End":"01:42.185","Text":"Now think of a polymer as a chain,"},{"Start":"01:42.185 ","End":"01:44.405","Text":"with each of its links a monomer,"},{"Start":"01:44.405 ","End":"01:48.115","Text":"so you actually have many monomers,"},{"Start":"01:48.115 ","End":"01:50.310","Text":"these are the building blocks,"},{"Start":"01:50.310 ","End":"01:55.710","Text":"and together these form,"},{"Start":"01:55.710 ","End":"01:58.010","Text":"when linked, a polymer."},{"Start":"01:58.010 ","End":"02:03.334","Text":"Polymers can also be synthetic organic material used as plastics and resins."},{"Start":"02:03.334 ","End":"02:07.040","Text":"This is not just what is found naturally,"},{"Start":"02:07.040 ","End":"02:11.150","Text":"but there are modifications to things that we"},{"Start":"02:11.150 ","End":"02:15.230","Text":"had found naturally that we can make into synthetic organic materials,"},{"Start":"02:15.230 ","End":"02:17.600","Text":"and that\u0027s what plastics and resins are."},{"Start":"02:17.600 ","End":"02:23.510","Text":"The polymer acquires new different characteristics from its individual components."},{"Start":"02:23.510 ","End":"02:27.365","Text":"What it means is that each piece of this polymer,"},{"Start":"02:27.365 ","End":"02:29.645","Text":"each piece of the puzzle separately,"},{"Start":"02:29.645 ","End":"02:31.790","Text":"is different from what it is altogether."},{"Start":"02:31.790 ","End":"02:34.190","Text":"You can think of those puzzles that are"},{"Start":"02:34.190 ","End":"02:36.810","Text":"made up of individual pictures of many different people,"},{"Start":"02:36.810 ","End":"02:38.285","Text":"and when they come together,"},{"Start":"02:38.285 ","End":"02:41.960","Text":"it creates the map of the world or something of that sort."},{"Start":"02:41.960 ","End":"02:48.310","Text":"Polymers acquire new different characteristics from its individual components."},{"Start":"02:48.310 ","End":"02:55.710","Text":"There are 4 major classes of biological macromolecules."},{"Start":"02:55.710 ","End":"03:00.765","Text":"If you remember, we also covered 4 classes of biomolecules."},{"Start":"03:00.765 ","End":"03:04.595","Text":"Now pay attention because these are different, though similar."},{"Start":"03:04.595 ","End":"03:06.860","Text":"We have carbohydrates."},{"Start":"03:06.860 ","End":"03:11.180","Text":"This can be familiar from the simple sugars when we went over biomolecules."},{"Start":"03:11.180 ","End":"03:18.670","Text":"But yes, 1 class of major biological macromolecules is carbohydrates."},{"Start":"03:18.670 ","End":"03:23.060","Text":"Polysaccharides, whereas before in the biomolecules,"},{"Start":"03:23.060 ","End":"03:26.180","Text":"we talked about monosaccharides or disaccharides,"},{"Start":"03:26.180 ","End":"03:29.510","Text":"in this case, the carbohydrates we are talking about are"},{"Start":"03:29.510 ","End":"03:34.590","Text":"sugars that have many components, polysaccharides."},{"Start":"03:34.590 ","End":"03:36.994","Text":"This is a sugar polymer,"},{"Start":"03:36.994 ","End":"03:41.750","Text":"is a mixture of different simple sugars or repeating units of the monosaccharide glucose,"},{"Start":"03:41.750 ","End":"03:48.860","Text":"meaning a chain of glucoses or a chain of a different mix of simple sugars."},{"Start":"03:48.860 ","End":"03:52.370","Text":"Like how we presented in the biomolecules section,"},{"Start":"03:52.370 ","End":"03:54.590","Text":"that from simple sugars,"},{"Start":"03:54.590 ","End":"03:57.590","Text":"you can form the disaccharide."},{"Start":"03:57.590 ","End":"04:01.385","Text":"Or if you have a sucrose and a glucose, they form sucrose."},{"Start":"04:01.385 ","End":"04:05.320","Text":"Here, you have either a mix of different simple sugars,"},{"Start":"04:05.320 ","End":"04:07.550","Text":"like what the sucrose is,"},{"Start":"04:07.550 ","End":"04:08.960","Text":"glucose and fructose,"},{"Start":"04:08.960 ","End":"04:10.895","Text":"or a sugar polymer,"},{"Start":"04:10.895 ","End":"04:16.810","Text":"a polysaccharide that is made of repeats of a monosaccharide glucose."},{"Start":"04:16.810 ","End":"04:19.460","Text":"If you see here,"},{"Start":"04:19.460 ","End":"04:23.510","Text":"we are familiar these are carbs,"},{"Start":"04:23.510 ","End":"04:27.555","Text":"and carbs, as mentioned, can be different."},{"Start":"04:27.555 ","End":"04:33.680","Text":"If we\u0027re talking about the simple sugars like in fruits, that\u0027s one thing."},{"Start":"04:33.680 ","End":"04:39.020","Text":"But here you have a variety of complex carbohydrates and starches,"},{"Start":"04:39.020 ","End":"04:40.925","Text":"for example, and whatnot."},{"Start":"04:40.925 ","End":"04:46.940","Text":"The second major class of biological macromolecules are lipids."},{"Start":"04:46.940 ","End":"04:51.415","Text":"The third major class is proteins."},{"Start":"04:51.415 ","End":"04:56.460","Text":"Here, you see proteins as we know it,"},{"Start":"04:56.460 ","End":"05:00.025","Text":"coming from meat, eggs,"},{"Start":"05:00.025 ","End":"05:05.765","Text":"and we have different nuts, legumes, etc."},{"Start":"05:05.765 ","End":"05:10.010","Text":"These are basically covalently linked amino acids."},{"Start":"05:10.010 ","End":"05:12.170","Text":"If you remember from the biomolecule section,"},{"Start":"05:12.170 ","End":"05:13.670","Text":"we talked about amino acids."},{"Start":"05:13.670 ","End":"05:17.870","Text":"Amino acid chains are what form proteins and"},{"Start":"05:17.870 ","End":"05:23.600","Text":"their order is what defines what specific protein it is."},{"Start":"05:23.600 ","End":"05:27.545","Text":"The fourth group is the nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"05:27.545 ","End":"05:29.915","Text":"the DNA or RNA."},{"Start":"05:29.915 ","End":"05:32.430","Text":"These are covalently linked nucleotides."},{"Start":"05:32.430 ","End":"05:39.005","Text":"If you remember, we talked about them and there\u0027s the 5 nucleotides, 4 for DNA,"},{"Start":"05:39.005 ","End":"05:47.600","Text":"4 for RNA with them changing that you have either T in DNA or U in RNA."},{"Start":"05:47.600 ","End":"05:53.750","Text":"Next we\u0027re going to talk about the 2 most abundant polymers in cells."},{"Start":"05:53.750 ","End":"06:00.885","Text":"The first one of the 4 that\u0027s most abundant is proteins."},{"Start":"06:00.885 ","End":"06:05.105","Text":"Proteins are one of the 2 most abundant polymers in cells."},{"Start":"06:05.105 ","End":"06:07.910","Text":"The second one is nucleic acids;"},{"Start":"06:07.910 ","End":"06:11.675","Text":"DNA and RNA, covalently linked nucleotides."},{"Start":"06:11.675 ","End":"06:15.320","Text":"This is actually what stores all our genetic information,"},{"Start":"06:15.320 ","End":"06:19.390","Text":"all that material that we pass along from one generation to the other."},{"Start":"06:19.390 ","End":"06:23.615","Text":"The proteins are functional and structural things in ourselves,"},{"Start":"06:23.615 ","End":"06:26.015","Text":"both are very important."},{"Start":"06:26.015 ","End":"06:31.325","Text":"Polymers are assembled and disassembled in cells by enzymes."},{"Start":"06:31.325 ","End":"06:33.110","Text":"Here, we have depictions of enzymes,"},{"Start":"06:33.110 ","End":"06:36.170","Text":"and enzymes are very particular at first through in substrate."},{"Start":"06:36.170 ","End":"06:37.715","Text":"What you see is this,"},{"Start":"06:37.715 ","End":"06:39.290","Text":"imagine this is their mouth."},{"Start":"06:39.290 ","End":"06:45.440","Text":"This is where they can actually fit the substrate in order to catalyze a reaction."},{"Start":"06:45.440 ","End":"06:50.405","Text":"The monomers here are circular so they can fit in the enzyme\u0027s mouth."},{"Start":"06:50.405 ","End":"06:53.630","Text":"What happens, the enzyme gets one of these circles,"},{"Start":"06:53.630 ","End":"06:54.965","Text":"one of these monomers."},{"Start":"06:54.965 ","End":"07:00.535","Text":"It interacts and brings it together and links it into a chain,"},{"Start":"07:00.535 ","End":"07:04.400","Text":"and there you have monomers turning into"},{"Start":"07:04.400 ","End":"07:08.570","Text":"polymers by assembly as carried out by an enzyme,"},{"Start":"07:08.570 ","End":"07:10.580","Text":"in this case, enzyme A."},{"Start":"07:10.580 ","End":"07:12.035","Text":"On the other hand,"},{"Start":"07:12.035 ","End":"07:15.390","Text":"you\u0027re seeing here an enzyme,"},{"Start":"07:15.390 ","End":"07:17.010","Text":"and I\u0027m looking at the arrow."},{"Start":"07:17.010 ","End":"07:20.280","Text":"This arrow for enzyme A goes from monomers to polymers,"},{"Start":"07:20.280 ","End":"07:21.685","Text":"but then you have enzyme B,"},{"Start":"07:21.685 ","End":"07:25.640","Text":"where you see the reaction occurs from polymer to monomer,"},{"Start":"07:25.640 ","End":"07:28.850","Text":"meaning that the polymers are being broken"},{"Start":"07:28.850 ","End":"07:36.140","Text":"apart as you can see by this enzyme where this circle will fit,"},{"Start":"07:36.140 ","End":"07:40.820","Text":"and creating individual monomers in the cell."},{"Start":"07:40.820 ","End":"07:45.900","Text":"You have here, this would be the assembly,"},{"Start":"07:46.060 ","End":"07:51.320","Text":"and on this side would be the disassembly."},{"Start":"07:51.320 ","End":"07:56.870","Text":"Now, this process requires the availability of chemical energy,"},{"Start":"07:56.870 ","End":"07:58.670","Text":"ATP, if you recall,"},{"Start":"07:58.670 ","End":"08:03.545","Text":"we talked about ATP as a nucleotide that has a function."},{"Start":"08:03.545 ","End":"08:06.830","Text":"It provides energy when you break down"},{"Start":"08:06.830 ","End":"08:11.400","Text":"the triphosphate that is part of the structure of the ATP."},{"Start":"08:11.400 ","End":"08:12.860","Text":"But if you don\u0027t remember,"},{"Start":"08:12.860 ","End":"08:15.665","Text":"it just means you need to go over that section again."},{"Start":"08:15.665 ","End":"08:20.015","Text":"Anyway, this process requires the availability of chemical energy, ATP."},{"Start":"08:20.015 ","End":"08:24.410","Text":"What this means is that enzyme A, for example,"},{"Start":"08:24.410 ","End":"08:28.820","Text":"catalyzes the synthesis of macromolecules when the energy levels,"},{"Start":"08:28.820 ","End":"08:30.335","Text":"ATP in the cells are high,"},{"Start":"08:30.335 ","End":"08:35.930","Text":"meaning this enzyme needs energy in order"},{"Start":"08:35.930 ","End":"08:43.310","Text":"to work and take these monomers and link them up into a chain."},{"Start":"08:43.310 ","End":"08:46.060","Text":"When you have energy, in this case,"},{"Start":"08:46.060 ","End":"08:49.275","Text":"the supply of energy is through ATP."},{"Start":"08:49.275 ","End":"08:51.585","Text":"So when there\u0027s a lot of ATP,"},{"Start":"08:51.585 ","End":"08:55.080","Text":"enzyme A can create polymers out of the monomers."},{"Start":"08:55.080 ","End":"08:57.580","Text":"When there\u0027s a shortage of ATP,"},{"Start":"08:57.580 ","End":"09:00.160","Text":"what happens is there will be degradation of"},{"Start":"09:00.160 ","End":"09:04.510","Text":"the macromolecules of the polymer into the individual monomers,"},{"Start":"09:04.510 ","End":"09:05.980","Text":"and upon this release,"},{"Start":"09:05.980 ","End":"09:09.310","Text":"energy will be released, which means ATP."},{"Start":"09:09.310 ","End":"09:14.770","Text":"In this case, while enzyme A needs ATP,"},{"Start":"09:14.770 ","End":"09:19.225","Text":"enzyme B results in release of ATP,"},{"Start":"09:19.225 ","End":"09:26.570","Text":"and this polymer now has become into a monomer."},{"Start":"09:26.770 ","End":"09:29.930","Text":"When ATP levels are high in the cell,"},{"Start":"09:29.930 ","End":"09:32.855","Text":"energy is available for their synthesis,"},{"Start":"09:32.855 ","End":"09:35.585","Text":"and when ATP levels in the cell are low,"},{"Start":"09:35.585 ","End":"09:38.345","Text":"then their degradation is favored."},{"Start":"09:38.345 ","End":"09:42.410","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about more specific things right now."},{"Start":"09:42.410 ","End":"09:44.855","Text":"Condensation reactions."},{"Start":"09:44.855 ","End":"09:48.995","Text":"This actually relates to what we just talked about."},{"Start":"09:48.995 ","End":"09:55.400","Text":"A monomer joins with another monomer with the release of a water molecule."},{"Start":"09:55.400 ","End":"09:58.625","Text":"When these come together,"},{"Start":"09:58.625 ","End":"10:01.790","Text":"a water molecule is released."},{"Start":"10:01.790 ","End":"10:06.215","Text":"Now, this leads to the formation of covalent bonds."},{"Start":"10:06.215 ","End":"10:10.325","Text":"These types of reactions are known as dehydration,"},{"Start":"10:10.325 ","End":"10:16.440","Text":"loss of hydration, or condensation reactions."},{"Start":"10:16.440 ","End":"10:23.660","Text":"All of this is to say is that when monomers become polymers,"},{"Start":"10:23.660 ","End":"10:28.355","Text":"there is a condensation or a dehydration reaction"},{"Start":"10:28.355 ","End":"10:35.795","Text":"to whatever monomer or plant or whatever it is that\u0027s coming together."},{"Start":"10:35.795 ","End":"10:38.120","Text":"As you see here,"},{"Start":"10:38.120 ","End":"10:40.010","Text":"this is actually not a monomer."},{"Start":"10:40.010 ","End":"10:41.450","Text":"You have 2 already linked together,"},{"Start":"10:41.450 ","End":"10:42.960","Text":"but it\u0027s because they\u0027re already linked,"},{"Start":"10:42.960 ","End":"10:46.790","Text":"but you have this one that\u0027s connecting to this one and it\u0027s exactly the same."},{"Start":"10:46.790 ","End":"10:47.945","Text":"Feels a little bit like a monomer."},{"Start":"10:47.945 ","End":"10:52.985","Text":"But these 2 monomers are coming together and they end because"},{"Start":"10:52.985 ","End":"11:01.235","Text":"each individual amino acid will end with an OH on one side and an H on one side."},{"Start":"11:01.235 ","End":"11:07.535","Text":"Where there is the hydrogen on the side and the OH on the other side,"},{"Start":"11:07.535 ","End":"11:09.290","Text":"they come together,"},{"Start":"11:09.290 ","End":"11:13.700","Text":"this OH migrates down and this H migrates down,"},{"Start":"11:13.700 ","End":"11:19.280","Text":"and then this is left with the desire to come together."},{"Start":"11:19.280 ","End":"11:23.960","Text":"There you have it, then you have a polymer of 3 monomers."},{"Start":"11:23.960 ","End":"11:27.334","Text":"Next we can talk about the hydrolysis reaction."},{"Start":"11:27.334 ","End":"11:31.715","Text":"When polymers are broken down into smaller units, monomers,"},{"Start":"11:31.715 ","End":"11:36.515","Text":"a molecule of water is used for each bond broken by these reactions,"},{"Start":"11:36.515 ","End":"11:39.680","Text":"such reactions are known as hydrolysis reactions."},{"Start":"11:39.680 ","End":"11:42.185","Text":"Looking at this illustration,"},{"Start":"11:42.185 ","End":"11:45.845","Text":"we have a polymer of 3 monomers."},{"Start":"11:45.845 ","End":"11:48.230","Text":"They\u0027re bound together."},{"Start":"11:48.230 ","End":"11:52.069","Text":"What you have for the hydrolysis reaction,"},{"Start":"11:52.069 ","End":"11:56.345","Text":"water being offered and shifted to them over here."},{"Start":"11:56.345 ","End":"12:00.020","Text":"Nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides"},{"Start":"12:00.020 ","End":"12:04.180","Text":"have 3-dimensional conformations that distinguish their function."},{"Start":"12:04.180 ","End":"12:07.220","Text":"The sequence of the building blocks defines"},{"Start":"12:07.220 ","End":"12:10.970","Text":"the structure of the molecule. What does that mean?"},{"Start":"12:10.970 ","End":"12:14.180","Text":"These structures are actually based on"},{"Start":"12:14.180 ","End":"12:18.050","Text":"the order of these building blocks and how they\u0027ve been put together,"},{"Start":"12:18.050 ","End":"12:22.190","Text":"and these structures can be flexible and dynamic."},{"Start":"12:22.190 ","End":"12:26.450","Text":"We covered in total what a macromolecule is,"},{"Start":"12:26.450 ","End":"12:29.135","Text":"we understand the synthesis of macromolecules,"},{"Start":"12:29.135 ","End":"12:32.600","Text":"we talked about the 4 major classes of biological macromolecules,"},{"Start":"12:32.600 ","End":"12:36.440","Text":"and we named the most abundant polymers in cells."},{"Start":"12:36.440 ","End":"12:40.450","Text":"See you in the exercises for this section."}],"ID":27022},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 18","Duration":"1m 48s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25701,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.740 ","End":"00:04.620","Text":"Going from cellular biomolecules,"},{"Start":"00:04.620 ","End":"00:07.920","Text":"we are going to cell macromolecules."},{"Start":"00:07.920 ","End":"00:11.625","Text":"The exercise within cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:11.625 ","End":"00:16.740","Text":"What is another term for macromolecule and what does it mean?"},{"Start":"00:16.740 ","End":"00:19.725","Text":"Macromolecule, an alternative,"},{"Start":"00:19.725 ","End":"00:27.750","Text":"is we have many molecules and many can be used by the term Poly in Greek."},{"Start":"00:27.750 ","End":"00:30.570","Text":"Polymer is another term for macromolecule and"},{"Start":"00:30.570 ","End":"00:33.510","Text":"it stems from the Greek words for, many parts."},{"Start":"00:33.510 ","End":"00:39.660","Text":"Poly means many, and Mer means parts."},{"Start":"00:39.660 ","End":"00:42.845","Text":"Each of those parts, a monomer."},{"Start":"00:42.845 ","End":"00:45.890","Text":"Mono means 1 part,"},{"Start":"00:45.890 ","End":"00:51.710","Text":"composes together a polymer."},{"Start":"00:51.710 ","End":"00:56.420","Text":"These are large organic molecules that are necessary for life."},{"Start":"00:56.420 ","End":"01:00.470","Text":"Macromolecules are large organic molecules that are necessary for"},{"Start":"01:00.470 ","End":"01:04.550","Text":"life and the synonymous term is polymer."},{"Start":"01:04.550 ","End":"01:07.360","Text":"It\u0027s composed of many parts."},{"Start":"01:07.360 ","End":"01:11.120","Text":"In other words, a polymer is a molecular structure consisting"},{"Start":"01:11.120 ","End":"01:14.420","Text":"of a large number of similar units bonded together."},{"Start":"01:14.420 ","End":"01:20.795","Text":"You have many monomers that are bonded together."},{"Start":"01:20.795 ","End":"01:25.490","Text":"These form a polymer."},{"Start":"01:25.490 ","End":"01:29.330","Text":"Again, Mer, part."},{"Start":"01:29.330 ","End":"01:33.365","Text":"Poly, many."},{"Start":"01:33.365 ","End":"01:37.650","Text":"Mono, 1."},{"Start":"01:38.440 ","End":"01:43.925","Text":"This is synonymous with macromolecule."},{"Start":"01:43.925 ","End":"01:48.930","Text":"There you have it. The exercise that\u0027s cell macromolecules."}],"ID":27023},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 19","Duration":"3m 19s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25702,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250137,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.800 ","End":"00:04.470","Text":"Welcome back to another exercise about"},{"Start":"00:04.470 ","End":"00:08.145","Text":"cell macromolecules within the cellular foundation."},{"Start":"00:08.145 ","End":"00:10.620","Text":"What are the 4 major classes of"},{"Start":"00:10.620 ","End":"00:15.975","Text":"biological macromolecules in which of these are the most abundant polymers in cells."},{"Start":"00:15.975 ","End":"00:18.195","Text":"This question is split into 2 parts."},{"Start":"00:18.195 ","End":"00:20.190","Text":"What are the 4 major classes of"},{"Start":"00:20.190 ","End":"00:25.035","Text":"biological macromolecules and which are the most abundant."},{"Start":"00:25.035 ","End":"00:31.380","Text":"Now, macromolecule is just to remember and not confused with biomolecules,"},{"Start":"00:31.380 ","End":"00:36.870","Text":"the smaller components because remember macromolecules are polymers."},{"Start":"00:36.870 ","End":"00:44.085","Text":"They are made of many parts and these will be carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"00:44.085 ","End":"00:47.755","Text":"which are made of sugars."},{"Start":"00:47.755 ","End":"00:53.765","Text":"These are composed of simple sugars that are linked together."},{"Start":"00:53.765 ","End":"00:56.285","Text":"We have lipids."},{"Start":"00:56.285 ","End":"00:59.090","Text":"These are made of"},{"Start":"00:59.090 ","End":"01:07.470","Text":"fatty acids that are linked together so other macromolecule is lipids,"},{"Start":"01:07.470 ","End":"01:11.900","Text":"and we have proteins that are made of amino acids."},{"Start":"01:11.900 ","End":"01:15.455","Text":"Last but not least, we have nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"01:15.455 ","End":"01:20.540","Text":"DNA and RNA, that are made of nucleotides."},{"Start":"01:20.540 ","End":"01:24.515","Text":"Carbohydrates are made of components,"},{"Start":"01:24.515 ","End":"01:32.230","Text":"simple sugars that are linked together to form the macromolecule, the polymer."},{"Start":"01:32.230 ","End":"01:37.370","Text":"Lipids are made of fatty acids."},{"Start":"01:39.990 ","End":"01:46.135","Text":"These are important for cell membranes, etc, insulation."},{"Start":"01:46.135 ","End":"01:52.390","Text":"Proteins have the building blocks of amino acids."},{"Start":"01:52.390 ","End":"02:00.850","Text":"These can be either functional or structural like enzymes or with the cytoskeleton."},{"Start":"02:00.850 ","End":"02:05.615","Text":"Nucleic acids are made of nucleotides,"},{"Start":"02:05.615 ","End":"02:09.110","Text":"so these macromolecules have"},{"Start":"02:09.110 ","End":"02:15.410","Text":"these building blocks and when we\u0027re talking about which are the most abundant,"},{"Start":"02:15.410 ","End":"02:20.465","Text":"we have 2 most abundant macromolecules in the cell."},{"Start":"02:20.465 ","End":"02:31.190","Text":"We have the proteins that form structure and function like enzymes, etc."},{"Start":"02:31.190 ","End":"02:35.104","Text":"We have nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"02:35.104 ","End":"02:39.830","Text":"the DNA, are genetic material, and RNA,"},{"Start":"02:39.830 ","End":"02:45.350","Text":"which has intermediate functions within DNA,"},{"Start":"02:45.350 ","End":"02:50.935","Text":"RNA to protein or they also have regulatory function."},{"Start":"02:50.935 ","End":"02:56.690","Text":"The 2 most abundant polymers are macromolecules in the cells are proteins and"},{"Start":"02:56.690 ","End":"03:02.195","Text":"nucleic acids and the 4 major classes of biological macromolecules in the cell."},{"Start":"03:02.195 ","End":"03:05.540","Text":"Remember, not small biomolecules,"},{"Start":"03:05.540 ","End":"03:08.585","Text":"rather macromolecules are carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"03:08.585 ","End":"03:12.245","Text":"lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids."},{"Start":"03:12.245 ","End":"03:15.260","Text":"There we have it. We have completed"},{"Start":"03:15.260 ","End":"03:20.279","Text":"the exercise for cell macromolecules within cellular foundation."}],"ID":27024}],"Thumbnail":null,"ID":250137},{"Name":"Chemical Foundation","TopicPlaylistFirstVideoID":0,"Duration":null,"Videos":[{"Watched":false,"Name":"Intro to Chemical Foundations of biology","Duration":"12m 22s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26194,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.759","Text":"Hey there. Welcome to chemical foundation,"},{"Start":"00:02.759 ","End":"00:06.615","Text":"intro to chemichal foundations of biology, biochemistry."},{"Start":"00:06.615 ","End":"00:10.515","Text":"In this section we will learn how to define biochemistry and its significance,"},{"Start":"00:10.515 ","End":"00:13.755","Text":"list the most abundant elements in living organisms,"},{"Start":"00:13.755 ","End":"00:15.240","Text":"explain organic molecules,"},{"Start":"00:15.240 ","End":"00:19.050","Text":"and understand what essential elements and trace elements are."},{"Start":"00:19.050 ","End":"00:24.360","Text":"Biochemistry is the study of biological forms and function in chemical terms."},{"Start":"00:24.360 ","End":"00:27.240","Text":"If we look at this word,"},{"Start":"00:27.240 ","End":"00:29.310","Text":"it\u0027s composed of bio and chemistry,"},{"Start":"00:29.310 ","End":"00:32.610","Text":"so studying biological forms,"},{"Start":"00:32.610 ","End":"00:39.450","Text":"organisms, using chemical terms, biochemistry."},{"Start":"00:39.450 ","End":"00:40.880","Text":"In late 18th century,"},{"Start":"00:40.880 ","End":"00:44.270","Text":"chemists substantiated the vast difference between the composition"},{"Start":"00:44.270 ","End":"00:47.990","Text":"of living matter versus that of the inanimate world."},{"Start":"00:47.990 ","End":"00:50.240","Text":"So, inanimate, not alive,"},{"Start":"00:50.240 ","End":"00:54.425","Text":"like stones, rocks, coal, etc."},{"Start":"00:54.425 ","End":"00:56.390","Text":"In a different manner,"},{"Start":"00:56.390 ","End":"00:58.580","Text":"the mineral world was noted to be of"},{"Start":"00:58.580 ","End":"01:03.035","Text":"relative simplicity in contrast to that of the plant and animal world."},{"Start":"01:03.035 ","End":"01:08.630","Text":"Minerals are naturally occurring substances such as diamonds, gold, etc."},{"Start":"01:08.630 ","End":"01:11.990","Text":"But aren\u0027t of plant or animal origin."},{"Start":"01:11.990 ","End":"01:14.690","Text":"They\u0027re solid inorganic substances."},{"Start":"01:14.690 ","End":"01:17.855","Text":"This was stated by Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier,"},{"Start":"01:17.855 ","End":"01:21.305","Text":"who was a French chemist in the 18th century,"},{"Start":"01:21.305 ","End":"01:22.955","Text":"a well-known French chemist."},{"Start":"01:22.955 ","End":"01:25.520","Text":"Again, he said, the mineral world was noted to be of"},{"Start":"01:25.520 ","End":"01:29.410","Text":"relative simplicity in contrast to that of the plant and animal world."},{"Start":"01:29.410 ","End":"01:33.305","Text":"Similar to what we are saying here,"},{"Start":"01:33.305 ","End":"01:35.840","Text":"that chemist substantiated the vast difference between"},{"Start":"01:35.840 ","End":"01:39.605","Text":"the composition of living matter versus that of the inanimate world,"},{"Start":"01:39.605 ","End":"01:46.355","Text":"and further going into it saying inanimate objects"},{"Start":"01:46.355 ","End":"01:53.585","Text":"or minerals are relatively simple compared to the plant and animal world."},{"Start":"01:53.585 ","End":"01:56.150","Text":"The latter, plant and animal world,"},{"Start":"01:56.150 ","End":"01:57.770","Text":"are rich in 4 elements."},{"Start":"01:57.770 ","End":"02:01.055","Text":"We have carbon, we have oxygen,"},{"Start":"02:01.055 ","End":"02:04.920","Text":"we have nitrogen, and we have phosphorus."},{"Start":"02:04.920 ","End":"02:08.137","Text":"You\u0027re probably very familiar with these, you\u0027ve heard them a lot,"},{"Start":"02:08.137 ","End":"02:09.815","Text":"even probably this the most,"},{"Start":"02:09.815 ","End":"02:11.180","Text":"phosphorus a little less,"},{"Start":"02:11.180 ","End":"02:13.390","Text":"but an easy way to remember watch for,"},{"Start":"02:13.390 ","End":"02:17.470","Text":"they cluster together and they form that tetris shape so you have C, N, O,"},{"Start":"02:17.470 ","End":"02:23.255","Text":"P. Studies early in the 20th century of various biochemical processes"},{"Start":"02:23.255 ","End":"02:29.375","Text":"in different organisms showed that many of these are shared by different organisms."},{"Start":"02:29.375 ","End":"02:31.880","Text":"Biochemical investigations, for example,"},{"Start":"02:31.880 ","End":"02:35.930","Text":"of glucose breakdown in yeast and in animal muscle cells,"},{"Start":"02:35.930 ","End":"02:39.020","Text":"revealed remarkable chemical similarities"},{"Start":"02:39.020 ","End":"02:42.620","Text":"between these 2 seemingly very different cell types."},{"Start":"02:42.620 ","End":"02:47.374","Text":"If we\u0027re thinking about, my shorthand,"},{"Start":"02:47.374 ","End":"02:52.970","Text":"glucose breakdown and yeast versus animal muscle cells,"},{"Start":"02:52.970 ","End":"02:55.153","Text":"where the yeast is a simple eukaryote,"},{"Start":"02:55.153 ","End":"02:59.885","Text":"and animal muscle is a complex eukaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"02:59.885 ","End":"03:03.560","Text":"looking at the glucose breakdown this biochemical"},{"Start":"03:03.560 ","End":"03:07.510","Text":"process in these 2 different types of cells,"},{"Start":"03:07.510 ","End":"03:10.760","Text":"they found great similarity where they involved"},{"Start":"03:10.760 ","End":"03:15.680","Text":"the same 10 chemical intermediates and the same 10 enzymes."},{"Start":"03:15.680 ","End":"03:21.845","Text":"Subsequent studies of many other biochemical processes in many different organisms,"},{"Start":"03:21.845 ","End":"03:25.760","Text":"have confirmed the generality of this observation that you"},{"Start":"03:25.760 ","End":"03:29.975","Text":"find similar biochemical processes in various organisms,"},{"Start":"03:29.975 ","End":"03:38.090","Text":"as neatly stated and summarized in 1954 by the French biochemist Jacques Monod,"},{"Start":"03:38.090 ","End":"03:41.390","Text":"what is true of E. Coli is true of the elephant."},{"Start":"03:41.390 ","End":"03:46.565","Text":"What is true of this single-cellular bacteria,"},{"Start":"03:46.565 ","End":"03:48.890","Text":"which is a prokaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"03:48.890 ","End":"03:52.340","Text":"is true also for the elephant,"},{"Start":"03:52.340 ","End":"03:59.735","Text":"which is a large multicellular organism made of eukaryotic cells."},{"Start":"03:59.735 ","End":"04:03.885","Text":"I\u0027m not matching these names so that you have to memorize them."},{"Start":"04:03.885 ","End":"04:06.530","Text":"It\u0027s just to prove the points of the evolution of"},{"Start":"04:06.530 ","End":"04:10.205","Text":"understanding of biochemistry as we know it today."},{"Start":"04:10.205 ","End":"04:16.790","Text":"The current understanding is"},{"Start":"04:16.790 ","End":"04:21.170","Text":"that all organisms originated from a common evolutionary ancestor."},{"Start":"04:21.170 ","End":"04:25.790","Text":"It\u0027s partially based on these common chemical processes and chemical intermediates,"},{"Start":"04:25.790 ","End":"04:28.925","Text":"a phenomena also known as biochemical unity."},{"Start":"04:28.925 ","End":"04:30.410","Text":"What are we saying here?"},{"Start":"04:30.410 ","End":"04:36.125","Text":"We had said in previous sections that historically we believe in the evolution,"},{"Start":"04:36.125 ","End":"04:38.930","Text":"that there was a common ancestor from which organisms"},{"Start":"04:38.930 ","End":"04:43.475","Text":"have diverged and evolved and then became different."},{"Start":"04:43.475 ","End":"04:49.835","Text":"The fact that we see common chemical processes and chemical intermediates,"},{"Start":"04:49.835 ","End":"04:54.245","Text":"meaning the basic functioning of the cell of"},{"Start":"04:54.245 ","End":"04:58.220","Text":"these various organisms are similar in"},{"Start":"04:58.220 ","End":"05:02.335","Text":"a way that it makes sense that they came from a common evolutionary ancestor,"},{"Start":"05:02.335 ","End":"05:06.725","Text":"and therefore this phenomena is called biochemical unity."},{"Start":"05:06.725 ","End":"05:12.695","Text":"Because there\u0027s unison, there\u0027s shared processes at the biochemical level."},{"Start":"05:12.695 ","End":"05:15.080","Text":"As for chemical elements,"},{"Start":"05:15.080 ","End":"05:17.780","Text":"there are about 90 percent naturally occurring"},{"Start":"05:17.780 ","End":"05:21.110","Text":"elements of which less than 30 are essential to organisms,"},{"Start":"05:21.110 ","End":"05:25.730","Text":"meaning less than a third of the non naturally"},{"Start":"05:25.730 ","End":"05:30.410","Text":"occurring chemical elements are actually essential for organisms,"},{"Start":"05:30.410 ","End":"05:37.115","Text":"meaning that organisms need these chemical elements in order to function and live."},{"Start":"05:37.115 ","End":"05:40.940","Text":"Most of these essential elements have low atomic number."},{"Start":"05:40.940 ","End":"05:43.805","Text":"If we look at the periodic table of elements,"},{"Start":"05:43.805 ","End":"05:46.400","Text":"this one\u0027s a little different from the one we looked before,"},{"Start":"05:46.400 ","End":"05:48.290","Text":"we have in pink and blue,"},{"Start":"05:48.290 ","End":"05:49.940","Text":"are essential elements,"},{"Start":"05:49.940 ","End":"05:51.320","Text":"and if you see them,"},{"Start":"05:51.320 ","End":"06:00.005","Text":"they basically cluster mostly under 30 with only 4 having a higher atomic number than 30."},{"Start":"06:00.005 ","End":"06:03.980","Text":"The difference between pink and blue bulk elements versus trace elements,"},{"Start":"06:03.980 ","End":"06:05.286","Text":"they\u0027re all essential,"},{"Start":"06:05.286 ","End":"06:09.680","Text":"pink are needed in bulk amounts in larger amounts than trace elements."},{"Start":"06:09.680 ","End":"06:14.270","Text":"Trace elements are needed in small amounts and it\u0027s of the trace elements,"},{"Start":"06:14.270 ","End":"06:18.935","Text":"the elements that are not needed in abundance,"},{"Start":"06:18.935 ","End":"06:24.545","Text":"it\u0027s these that fall into the group of the 4 that have a higher atomic number than 30."},{"Start":"06:24.545 ","End":"06:27.770","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about the 4 most abundant elements in living organisms in"},{"Start":"06:27.770 ","End":"06:31.585","Text":"terms of percent of total number of atoms."},{"Start":"06:31.585 ","End":"06:34.790","Text":"This is the most abundant when you talk about"},{"Start":"06:34.790 ","End":"06:39.695","Text":"the percent of number of atoms in the cell, in the organism."},{"Start":"06:39.695 ","End":"06:42.140","Text":"Here we have hydrogen,"},{"Start":"06:42.140 ","End":"06:44.300","Text":"we didn\u0027t mention this one before."},{"Start":"06:44.300 ","End":"06:45.410","Text":"We have oxygen,"},{"Start":"06:45.410 ","End":"06:46.790","Text":"we mentioned that one before."},{"Start":"06:46.790 ","End":"06:49.040","Text":"Nitrogen, we talked about nitrogen."},{"Start":"06:49.040 ","End":"06:51.110","Text":"Carbon, we also had that one."},{"Start":"06:51.110 ","End":"06:54.470","Text":"We again have the cluster of C,"},{"Start":"06:54.470 ","End":"06:56.930","Text":"N, and O carbon, nitrogen, oxygen."},{"Start":"06:56.930 ","End":"06:59.270","Text":"Instead of phosphorus, we have hydrogen,"},{"Start":"06:59.270 ","End":"07:02.410","Text":"so we still see these 3, and hydrogen."},{"Start":"07:02.410 ","End":"07:04.190","Text":"These are the 4 most abundant elements in"},{"Start":"07:04.190 ","End":"07:07.565","Text":"living organisms in terms of percent of total number of atoms"},{"Start":"07:07.565 ","End":"07:13.655","Text":"versus the 4 elements that are found in organisms."},{"Start":"07:13.655 ","End":"07:20.323","Text":"Basically, plant and animal organisms are rich in the 4 elements and that was the C,"},{"Start":"07:20.323 ","End":"07:23.870","Text":"N, O, and P. We also talked about in a previous section,"},{"Start":"07:23.870 ","End":"07:26.780","Text":"the 4 major classes of biological macromolecules."},{"Start":"07:26.780 ","End":"07:29.660","Text":"Carbohydrates, it\u0027s also known as polysaccharides,"},{"Start":"07:29.660 ","End":"07:32.255","Text":"which are sugars, lipids,"},{"Start":"07:32.255 ","End":"07:34.745","Text":"proteins, and nucleic acids."},{"Start":"07:34.745 ","End":"07:37.408","Text":"Lipids are fats, proteins are made of amino acids,"},{"Start":"07:37.408 ","End":"07:39.455","Text":"and nucleic acids made of DNA and RNA."},{"Start":"07:39.455 ","End":"07:43.700","Text":"They\u0027re also known as organic molecules."},{"Start":"07:43.700 ","End":"07:48.304","Text":"We\u0027re learning this term to define"},{"Start":"07:48.304 ","End":"07:51.440","Text":"these biological macromolecules that we had talked"},{"Start":"07:51.440 ","End":"07:55.025","Text":"about and learned about are considered organic molecules,"},{"Start":"07:55.025 ","End":"07:59.405","Text":"molecules that are produced in living organism."},{"Start":"07:59.405 ","End":"08:01.910","Text":"They\u0027re usually composed of the above elements,"},{"Start":"08:01.910 ","End":"08:04.370","Text":"carbon atoms in rings or long chains,"},{"Start":"08:04.370 ","End":"08:10.600","Text":"to which are attached to other atoms of such elements as hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen."},{"Start":"08:10.600 ","End":"08:13.903","Text":"Here you have it. The presence of nitrogen, oxygen,"},{"Start":"08:13.903 ","End":"08:17.270","Text":"and other atoms adds a variety to these carbon molecules and"},{"Start":"08:17.270 ","End":"08:21.665","Text":"results in the 4 important classes of organic molecules."},{"Start":"08:21.665 ","End":"08:27.065","Text":"What this means is that the presence of the carbon molecule and its ability to"},{"Start":"08:27.065 ","End":"08:32.720","Text":"form 4 bonds is what results in a variety of organic molecules,"},{"Start":"08:32.720 ","End":"08:35.360","Text":"including these 4 that we mentioned here,"},{"Start":"08:35.360 ","End":"08:37.745","Text":"the carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids."},{"Start":"08:37.745 ","End":"08:41.210","Text":"There are some organic molecules like"},{"Start":"08:41.210 ","End":"08:45.680","Text":"carbohydrates that consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen."},{"Start":"08:45.680 ","End":"08:50.052","Text":"They don\u0027t necessarily consist of all 4."},{"Start":"08:50.052 ","End":"08:51.845","Text":"Carbohydrates, for example,"},{"Start":"08:51.845 ","End":"08:53.810","Text":"consists of only these 3,"},{"Start":"08:53.810 ","End":"08:59.000","Text":"and if you remember, we talked about carbohydrates can be in a linear chain of carbons,"},{"Start":"08:59.000 ","End":"09:00.830","Text":"or it could be in circular,"},{"Start":"09:00.830 ","End":"09:05.960","Text":"and we also talked about the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen that generally we will"},{"Start":"09:05.960 ","End":"09:11.740","Text":"find that they\u0027re similar to the ratio in water, H_2O."},{"Start":"09:11.740 ","End":"09:14.170","Text":"For each oxygen there will be 2 hydrogens."},{"Start":"09:14.170 ","End":"09:16.970","Text":"If you have a carbohydrate that has 4 oxygens,"},{"Start":"09:16.970 ","End":"09:19.640","Text":"therefore there will be 8 hydrogens."},{"Start":"09:19.640 ","End":"09:21.360","Text":"An additional thing to talk about,"},{"Start":"09:21.360 ","End":"09:26.984","Text":"these 4 elements are that they\u0027re the lightest elements that can officially form 1,"},{"Start":"09:26.984 ","End":"09:29.030","Text":"2, 3 or 4 bonds respectively."},{"Start":"09:29.030 ","End":"09:31.100","Text":"They form these efficient bonds and"},{"Start":"09:31.100 ","End":"09:34.040","Text":"the lightest elements tend to form the strongest bonds."},{"Start":"09:34.040 ","End":"09:36.545","Text":"They\u0027re efficient bonds, they\u0027re strong."},{"Start":"09:36.545 ","End":"09:39.230","Text":"See here, they are low on atomic number."},{"Start":"09:39.230 ","End":"09:41.675","Text":"You have 1, 6 and this will be 7 and 8."},{"Start":"09:41.675 ","End":"09:44.105","Text":"These are considered low atomic numbers,"},{"Start":"09:44.105 ","End":"09:46.090","Text":"yet they form strong bonds,"},{"Start":"09:46.090 ","End":"09:49.070","Text":"and these bonds allow for the variety of"},{"Start":"09:49.070 ","End":"09:53.530","Text":"the organic molecules that form with these elements."},{"Start":"09:53.530 ","End":"09:55.520","Text":"If you look at the plant and animal world,"},{"Start":"09:55.520 ","End":"09:57.583","Text":"which we said is rich in 4 elements,"},{"Start":"09:57.583 ","End":"09:58.790","Text":"you have carbon, oxygen,"},{"Start":"09:58.790 ","End":"10:00.825","Text":"nitrogen, and phosphorus,"},{"Start":"10:00.825 ","End":"10:04.730","Text":"versus the 4 most abundant elements in living organisms in terms of percent"},{"Start":"10:04.730 ","End":"10:08.855","Text":"of total number of atoms and these are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon."},{"Start":"10:08.855 ","End":"10:10.475","Text":"You have the tetris cluster,"},{"Start":"10:10.475 ","End":"10:16.940","Text":"and you have the cluster of 3 with the hydrogen overlooking them from atop."},{"Start":"10:16.940 ","End":"10:20.645","Text":"I mentioned trace elements previously briefly,"},{"Start":"10:20.645 ","End":"10:26.195","Text":"and we\u0027re going to talk about these because these are also essential elements."},{"Start":"10:26.195 ","End":"10:34.415","Text":"We mentioned essential elements as being essential for organisms to function."},{"Start":"10:34.415 ","End":"10:39.245","Text":"These can fall into the 2 categories of bulk,"},{"Start":"10:39.245 ","End":"10:44.205","Text":"meaning needed in large amounts or trace needed in small amounts."},{"Start":"10:44.205 ","End":"10:46.030","Text":"Bulk and trace, you see,"},{"Start":"10:46.030 ","End":"10:48.425","Text":"bulk in pink and trace in blue."},{"Start":"10:48.425 ","End":"10:50.810","Text":"Trace elements are essential elements that represent"},{"Start":"10:50.810 ","End":"10:54.215","Text":"a tiny fraction of the mass of the weight of the human body."},{"Start":"10:54.215 ","End":"10:58.370","Text":"They are generally indispensable to the function of specific proteins such as enzymes,"},{"Start":"10:58.370 ","End":"11:04.190","Text":"meaning that certain enzymes need these trace elements even at that small,"},{"Start":"11:04.190 ","End":"11:06.260","Text":"tiny amount in order to function."},{"Start":"11:06.260 ","End":"11:09.980","Text":"For example, for iron ions that make up only 0.3 percent of"},{"Start":"11:09.980 ","End":"11:14.213","Text":"the hemoglobin molecule are essential for oxygen transportation."},{"Start":"11:14.213 ","End":"11:17.435","Text":"Without these 4 iron ions,"},{"Start":"11:17.435 ","End":"11:21.035","Text":"hemoglobin won\u0027t be able to bind oxygen,"},{"Start":"11:21.035 ","End":"11:26.240","Text":"and there will not be oxygen transported throughout the body."},{"Start":"11:26.240 ","End":"11:28.804","Text":"With our blood, without oxygen,"},{"Start":"11:28.804 ","End":"11:30.597","Text":"our cells cannot function,"},{"Start":"11:30.597 ","End":"11:32.210","Text":"they will actually die,"},{"Start":"11:32.210 ","End":"11:36.290","Text":"and therefore the organism will not survive."},{"Start":"11:36.290 ","End":"11:41.430","Text":"There are even elements that are required at smaller amounts,"},{"Start":"11:41.430 ","End":"11:47.240","Text":"and organisms, animals acquire them by eating, consuming them."},{"Start":"11:47.240 ","End":"11:53.015","Text":"While if we look at plants and microorganisms, for them,"},{"Start":"11:53.015 ","End":"11:56.390","Text":"how they acquire this and they generally have"},{"Start":"11:56.390 ","End":"12:00.609","Text":"similar requirements of these trace elements as to animals,"},{"Start":"12:00.609 ","End":"12:03.545","Text":"yet they acquire them in various ways."},{"Start":"12:03.545 ","End":"12:05.255","Text":"We don\u0027t need to get into,"},{"Start":"12:05.255 ","End":"12:07.020","Text":"but a little differently than us."},{"Start":"12:07.020 ","End":"12:11.210","Text":"As we completed this section where we defined biochemistry and its significance,"},{"Start":"12:11.210 ","End":"12:14.135","Text":"we listed the most abundant elements in living organisms,"},{"Start":"12:14.135 ","End":"12:16.948","Text":"we explained what organic molecules are,"},{"Start":"12:16.948 ","End":"12:19.655","Text":"and what essential elements and trace elements are."},{"Start":"12:19.655 ","End":"12:22.860","Text":"Thanks and see you in the exercises."}],"ID":27085},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 1","Duration":"50s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26189,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.150","Text":"We\u0027re in the section of Chemical Foundation covering the topic"},{"Start":"00:03.150 ","End":"00:06.720","Text":"of Introduction to Chemical Foundations of Biology."},{"Start":"00:06.720 ","End":"00:11.400","Text":"In this exercise, I would like for you to define biochemistry."},{"Start":"00:11.400 ","End":"00:14.145","Text":"Remember, biochemistry,"},{"Start":"00:14.145 ","End":"00:18.255","Text":"break it down, studying biology and chemical terms."},{"Start":"00:18.255 ","End":"00:22.190","Text":"Biochemistry, also known as biological chemistry,"},{"Start":"00:22.190 ","End":"00:27.164","Text":"is the study of biological forms and function in chemical terms,"},{"Start":"00:27.164 ","End":"00:34.925","Text":"so biological forms which are what we are studying in chemical terms, easy enough."},{"Start":"00:34.925 ","End":"00:37.550","Text":"It is the study of chemical processes within and"},{"Start":"00:37.550 ","End":"00:40.413","Text":"relating to living organisms, biological things,"},{"Start":"00:40.413 ","End":"00:44.120","Text":"the study of the chemical substances and processes that occur in plants, animals,"},{"Start":"00:44.120 ","End":"00:48.455","Text":"and microorganisms, and of the changes they undergo during development and life."},{"Start":"00:48.455 ","End":"00:51.510","Text":"That was easy enough. Let\u0027s move on."}],"ID":27086},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 2","Duration":"50s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26190,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.570","Text":"Hey, welcome back to chemical foundation and exercise testing"},{"Start":"00:03.570 ","End":"00:07.005","Text":"your knowledge on the introduction to chemical foundations of biology."},{"Start":"00:07.005 ","End":"00:11.129","Text":"The plant and animal world are rich in what 4 elements?"},{"Start":"00:11.129 ","End":"00:13.094","Text":"We talked about 4 elements."},{"Start":"00:13.094 ","End":"00:19.800","Text":"These are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus."},{"Start":"00:19.800 ","End":"00:25.755","Text":"We have that tetris, that is what the plant and animal world are rich in."},{"Start":"00:25.755 ","End":"00:28.290","Text":"Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus,"},{"Start":"00:28.290 ","End":"00:32.190","Text":"do not confuse it with highest percent,"},{"Start":"00:32.190 ","End":"00:37.575","Text":"with regard to mass atoms, those were different."},{"Start":"00:37.575 ","End":"00:41.675","Text":"You have these 3 for that and just a remember hydrogen."},{"Start":"00:41.675 ","End":"00:44.090","Text":"For plants and animal world,"},{"Start":"00:44.090 ","End":"00:46.940","Text":"the 4 elements that these are rich in are carbon,"},{"Start":"00:46.940 ","End":"00:50.940","Text":"oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. That\u0027s that."}],"ID":27087},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 3","Duration":"1m 53s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26191,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.125","Text":"Here we have an exercise within chemical foundation,"},{"Start":"00:04.125 ","End":"00:07.110","Text":"Introduction to Chemical Foundations of biology."},{"Start":"00:07.110 ","End":"00:10.425","Text":"Describe the phenomena known as biochemical unity."},{"Start":"00:10.425 ","End":"00:15.705","Text":"Remember talking about biochemical processes and unity similarity."},{"Start":"00:15.705 ","End":"00:20.670","Text":"Biochemical unity is the phenomena where studies early in"},{"Start":"00:20.670 ","End":"00:23.130","Text":"the 20th century of various biochemical processes in"},{"Start":"00:23.130 ","End":"00:26.955","Text":"different organisms showed that many of these are shared by different organisms."},{"Start":"00:26.955 ","End":"00:31.500","Text":"As stated by the French biochemists Jacques Monod in 1954,"},{"Start":"00:31.500 ","End":"00:34.470","Text":"what is true of E. coli is true of the elephant."},{"Start":"00:34.470 ","End":"00:40.905","Text":"What we meant with this is that it was found that you have a variety of organisms,"},{"Start":"00:40.905 ","End":"00:45.695","Text":"yet their basic biochemical processes are similar between the two."},{"Start":"00:45.695 ","End":"00:48.559","Text":"When you\u0027re looking at a unicellular bacteria,"},{"Start":"00:48.559 ","End":"00:55.070","Text":"unicellular prokaryote, you find that the processes at the cellular level,"},{"Start":"00:55.070 ","End":"00:59.360","Text":"molecular level, the biochemical processes are similar to that as"},{"Start":"00:59.360 ","End":"01:05.855","Text":"found in a complex, large multi-cellular eukaryote."},{"Start":"01:05.855 ","End":"01:10.400","Text":"Biochemical unity means the similarity that is found in"},{"Start":"01:10.400 ","End":"01:14.585","Text":"the biochemical processes amongst various organisms."},{"Start":"01:14.585 ","End":"01:16.565","Text":"The current understanding that all organisms"},{"Start":"01:16.565 ","End":"01:19.460","Text":"originated from a common evolutionary ancestor is"},{"Start":"01:19.460 ","End":"01:22.340","Text":"partially based on these common chemical processes and"},{"Start":"01:22.340 ","End":"01:25.595","Text":"chemical intermediates and thus is known as biochemical unity."},{"Start":"01:25.595 ","End":"01:28.400","Text":"These organisms are likely derived from"},{"Start":"01:28.400 ","End":"01:32.015","Text":"an evolutionary ancestor and this is why their basic functioning,"},{"Start":"01:32.015 ","End":"01:36.110","Text":"is an essence the same and as they diverge and"},{"Start":"01:36.110 ","End":"01:41.240","Text":"involved in time to be more compatible with their environment,"},{"Start":"01:41.240 ","End":"01:47.600","Text":"their geography, their water versus air versus whatever their ecosystem is,"},{"Start":"01:47.600 ","End":"01:53.940","Text":"they evolved for it yet the basic functions are similar. There we have it."}],"ID":27088},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 4","Duration":"1m 53s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26192,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.065","Text":"Hey guys. Here we are doing an exercise,"},{"Start":"00:04.065 ","End":"00:08.760","Text":"intro to Chemical Foundations of biology within the section of chemical foundation."},{"Start":"00:08.760 ","End":"00:12.420","Text":"Part I, of the 90 natural occurring chemical elements,"},{"Start":"00:12.420 ","End":"00:16.140","Text":"how many are central to organisms and what can be said of most of them?"},{"Start":"00:16.140 ","End":"00:19.860","Text":"Remember, we talked about they\u0027re about 90 naturally occurring chemical elements,"},{"Start":"00:19.860 ","End":"00:26.460","Text":"and we mentioned essential elements that these are less than a third,"},{"Start":"00:26.460 ","End":"00:31.410","Text":"meaning less than 30 natural occurring elements are essential."},{"Start":"00:31.410 ","End":"00:32.955","Text":"What did we say about these?"},{"Start":"00:32.955 ","End":"00:35.660","Text":"They mostly have low atomic number."},{"Start":"00:35.660 ","End":"00:38.000","Text":"Only 4 have a higher atomic number than 30,"},{"Start":"00:38.000 ","End":"00:40.550","Text":"and if you remember these 4 are actually trace elements"},{"Start":"00:40.550 ","End":"00:43.400","Text":"needed in very small amounts versus"},{"Start":"00:43.400 ","End":"00:50.840","Text":"all the bulk essential elements are found within the atomic number smaller than 30."},{"Start":"00:50.840 ","End":"00:56.200","Text":"You can remember there\u0027s less than 30 and their atomic number is less than 30,"},{"Start":"00:56.200 ","End":"00:58.600","Text":"1 way to remember it. Let\u0027s go to Part II."},{"Start":"00:58.600 ","End":"01:03.350","Text":"What are the 4 most abundant elements in living organisms in terms of percentage of"},{"Start":"01:03.350 ","End":"01:08.405","Text":"total number of atoms and what chemical attribute do they have?"},{"Start":"01:08.405 ","End":"01:15.385","Text":"We talked about the hydrogen once overlooking the cluster that we have here of oxygen,"},{"Start":"01:15.385 ","End":"01:18.555","Text":"nitrogen, and carbon."},{"Start":"01:18.555 ","End":"01:22.490","Text":"We have the hydrogen overlooking the 3 that are here,"},{"Start":"01:22.490 ","End":"01:27.637","Text":"and they are the lightest elements that can efficiently form 1,"},{"Start":"01:27.637 ","End":"01:30.650","Text":"2, 3, 4 bonds respectively."},{"Start":"01:30.650 ","End":"01:33.080","Text":"Remember we talked about hydrogen can form 1 bond,"},{"Start":"01:33.080 ","End":"01:34.570","Text":"oxygen can form 2 bonds,"},{"Start":"01:34.570 ","End":"01:36.740","Text":"nitrogen can form 3 bonds,"},{"Start":"01:36.740 ","End":"01:40.700","Text":"and carbon can form 4 bonds."},{"Start":"01:40.700 ","End":"01:44.200","Text":"They are the lightest elements that can form such bonds,"},{"Start":"01:44.200 ","End":"01:49.160","Text":"and we also mentioned that these are very strong bonds."},{"Start":"01:49.160 ","End":"01:54.030","Text":"With that, we completed this exercise. Thanks."}],"ID":27089},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 5","Duration":"1m 1s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26193,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.210","Text":"Welcome back to Chemical Foundation and"},{"Start":"00:03.210 ","End":"00:05.730","Text":"an exercise testing your knowledge"},{"Start":"00:05.730 ","End":"00:08.610","Text":"on the introduction to chemical foundations of biology."},{"Start":"00:08.610 ","End":"00:10.920","Text":"What are trace elements?"},{"Start":"00:10.920 ","End":"00:13.395","Text":"Trace elements are essential elements that represent"},{"Start":"00:13.395 ","End":"00:17.535","Text":"a tiny fraction of the mass of the weight of the human body,"},{"Start":"00:17.535 ","End":"00:21.675","Text":"or a tiny fraction of the mass of an organism."},{"Start":"00:21.675 ","End":"00:24.240","Text":"They\u0027re generally indispensable to the function of"},{"Start":"00:24.240 ","End":"00:28.770","Text":"specific proteins such as enzymes meaning that without these elements,"},{"Start":"00:28.770 ","End":"00:30.990","Text":"even though they\u0027re tiny fraction,"},{"Start":"00:30.990 ","End":"00:34.185","Text":"certain enzymes or proteins cannot function."},{"Start":"00:34.185 ","End":"00:36.305","Text":"We also gave an example,"},{"Start":"00:36.305 ","End":"00:38.895","Text":"we mentioned the example of iron ions that make up"},{"Start":"00:38.895 ","End":"00:42.890","Text":"0.3% of the hemoglobin molecule that\u0027s within red blood cells,"},{"Start":"00:42.890 ","End":"00:45.690","Text":"which are essential for oxygen transportation."},{"Start":"00:45.690 ","End":"00:49.565","Text":"Without this tiny amount of iron within the hemoglobin,"},{"Start":"00:49.565 ","End":"00:51.680","Text":"we cannot transport oxygen,"},{"Start":"00:51.680 ","End":"00:58.565","Text":"which means we cannot supply energy and food to the cells and therefore they will perish."},{"Start":"00:58.565 ","End":"01:02.190","Text":"Thanks. Hopefully, you got that one easily."}],"ID":27090},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Chemistry of Biomolecules","Duration":"14m 31s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26195,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.930","Text":"Hey there, welcome back to Chemical Foundation within the course"},{"Start":"00:03.930 ","End":"00:08.085","Text":"about chemistry and we\u0027ll be covering chemistry of biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:08.085 ","End":"00:12.465","Text":"By the end of this section, you\u0027ll be able to characterize the biomolecule carbon,"},{"Start":"00:12.465 ","End":"00:14.843","Text":"define metabolite, metabolome,"},{"Start":"00:14.843 ","End":"00:19.545","Text":"and metabolomics, and describe the 2 different types of metabolites in the cell."},{"Start":"00:19.545 ","End":"00:23.325","Text":"Carbon is a major component in the chemistry of living organisms."},{"Start":"00:23.325 ","End":"00:26.475","Text":"It accounts for more than 50 percent of the weight of cells."},{"Start":"00:26.475 ","End":"00:33.395","Text":"So more than half of the weight of cells is made up of carbon as a major component."},{"Start":"00:33.395 ","End":"00:37.775","Text":"It has the ability to bind and make a bunch of several different bonds."},{"Start":"00:37.775 ","End":"00:41.480","Text":"It can form single bonds with hydrogen atoms as you can see here."},{"Start":"00:41.480 ","End":"00:44.038","Text":"So if you remember from the previous section, we talked about carbon,"},{"Start":"00:44.038 ","End":"00:46.480","Text":"it has the ability to form 4 bonds,"},{"Start":"00:46.480 ","End":"00:49.130","Text":"whereas hydrogen has the ability to form 1 bond."},{"Start":"00:49.130 ","End":"00:51.020","Text":"As you could see here. You have the 4 dots."},{"Start":"00:51.020 ","End":"00:53.645","Text":"This represents its ability to bond."},{"Start":"00:53.645 ","End":"00:55.910","Text":"Each hydrogen has 1 bond."},{"Start":"00:55.910 ","End":"00:57.395","Text":"You see in red,"},{"Start":"00:57.395 ","End":"01:01.100","Text":"this signifies this bond between them."},{"Start":"01:01.100 ","End":"01:06.665","Text":"When they bond, these 2 red dots come together and form this relationship,"},{"Start":"01:06.665 ","End":"01:09.395","Text":"this bond that you see here with a red line,"},{"Start":"01:09.395 ","End":"01:14.240","Text":"this actually signifies somewhat of an electron relationship or exchange."},{"Start":"01:14.240 ","End":"01:20.470","Text":"We didn\u0027t go into that so I\u0027m just mentioning it as an FYI but you can see here."},{"Start":"01:20.470 ","End":"01:24.470","Text":"It can form single and double bonds with oxygen and nitrogen atoms."},{"Start":"01:24.470 ","End":"01:31.235","Text":"If you remember, we said oxygen can have 2 bonds and nitrogen can have 3 bonds."},{"Start":"01:31.235 ","End":"01:33.170","Text":"Now, if you look here,"},{"Start":"01:33.170 ","End":"01:36.605","Text":"it\u0027s again showing electrons and then"},{"Start":"01:36.605 ","End":"01:41.791","Text":"the red dot is what will be bonding between the carbon and the oxygen."},{"Start":"01:41.791 ","End":"01:43.550","Text":"Here you have a single bond."},{"Start":"01:43.550 ","End":"01:48.060","Text":"Each 1 is giving 1 electron or 1 donation to this bond,"},{"Start":"01:48.060 ","End":"01:49.875","Text":"as you see the 2 here, and 1 bond."},{"Start":"01:49.875 ","End":"01:51.915","Text":"In the case of 2 bonds,"},{"Start":"01:51.915 ","End":"01:54.120","Text":"a double bond with oxygen,"},{"Start":"01:54.120 ","End":"01:57.326","Text":"you see here, there is the red and the red and red and red."},{"Start":"01:57.326 ","End":"02:00.545","Text":"Each 1 has 2 reds because these 2 are going to associate."},{"Start":"02:00.545 ","End":"02:05.150","Text":"Now you have 4 in the middle between them that associated,"},{"Start":"02:05.150 ","End":"02:07.310","Text":"2 from each element,"},{"Start":"02:07.310 ","End":"02:10.185","Text":"and you have 2 lines represent 2 bonds."},{"Start":"02:10.185 ","End":"02:12.995","Text":"It\u0027s a double bond between the carbon and the oxygen."},{"Start":"02:12.995 ","End":"02:15.080","Text":"Similarly, you can see this with nitrogen."},{"Start":"02:15.080 ","End":"02:17.830","Text":"If you remember, nitrogen can actually form 3 bonds."},{"Start":"02:17.830 ","End":"02:19.955","Text":"So you have carbon, you have the red dot,"},{"Start":"02:19.955 ","End":"02:22.205","Text":"this is forming a single bond."},{"Start":"02:22.205 ","End":"02:25.166","Text":"Each 1 is giving 1 red dot,"},{"Start":"02:25.166 ","End":"02:27.725","Text":"electron, and you have a single bond."},{"Start":"02:27.725 ","End":"02:31.310","Text":"We will look here and you see the carbon and nitrogen. Now, there\u0027s 2."},{"Start":"02:31.310 ","End":"02:35.870","Text":"This will mean that you have a double bond, 2 lines."},{"Start":"02:35.870 ","End":"02:40.360","Text":"So you\u0027re able to actually see either a"},{"Start":"02:40.360 ","End":"02:45.040","Text":"single or a double bond of carbon with oxygen and nitrogen."},{"Start":"02:45.040 ","End":"02:49.495","Text":"Now, it can form very stable single bonds with up to 4 other carbons,"},{"Start":"02:49.495 ","End":"02:51.880","Text":"meaning it also associates with itself."},{"Start":"02:51.880 ","End":"02:54.055","Text":"So when we learn about carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"02:54.055 ","End":"02:56.590","Text":"it forms linear or circular chains."},{"Start":"02:56.590 ","End":"02:59.275","Text":"How it does this as it associates with itself,"},{"Start":"02:59.275 ","End":"03:02.250","Text":"you have a single and a single so again,"},{"Start":"03:02.250 ","End":"03:08.286","Text":"this forms into 2 that will represent 1 single bond when you have 2 dots, 1 single bond."},{"Start":"03:08.286 ","End":"03:11.380","Text":"Here you have 2 red dots per element,"},{"Start":"03:11.380 ","End":"03:15.010","Text":"per carbon, which means it will have 4 dots."},{"Start":"03:15.010 ","End":"03:17.380","Text":"This is, again, just a visual representation."},{"Start":"03:17.380 ","End":"03:22.385","Text":"This is not actually how it would look and you have 2 bonds."},{"Start":"03:22.385 ","End":"03:24.135","Text":"It can form 4 bonds."},{"Start":"03:24.135 ","End":"03:28.604","Text":"Therefore, it still has the ability to form 3 bonds with itself."},{"Start":"03:28.604 ","End":"03:32.495","Text":"Here you have 3 dots from each 1 which totals in 6,"},{"Start":"03:32.495 ","End":"03:34.340","Text":"which means 3 lines."},{"Start":"03:34.340 ","End":"03:39.890","Text":"This is a triple bond with carbon and it can actually also have"},{"Start":"03:39.890 ","End":"03:45.965","Text":"it where instead of having a triple bond with carbon or a double bond with carbon,"},{"Start":"03:45.965 ","End":"03:53.375","Text":"it can have its 4 abilities to bind and each 1 be with a carbon,"},{"Start":"03:53.375 ","End":"03:57.000","Text":"and then the other carbons can continue."},{"Start":"03:57.000 ","End":"03:58.335","Text":"Of course, at this point,"},{"Start":"03:58.335 ","End":"04:01.020","Text":"our carbon can bind an oxygen, etc."},{"Start":"04:01.020 ","End":"04:04.168","Text":"Now, 2 carbon atoms can share 2 or 3 electron pairs,"},{"Start":"04:04.168 ","End":"04:05.832","Text":"forming double or triple bonds."},{"Start":"04:05.832 ","End":"04:08.285","Text":"That is what we are seeing here."},{"Start":"04:08.285 ","End":"04:12.090","Text":"Single bonds are somewhat flexible. What does this mean?"},{"Start":"04:12.090 ","End":"04:16.865","Text":"It means that if you have a single bond like this,"},{"Start":"04:16.865 ","End":"04:22.010","Text":"the ability to move like this line can actually maybe be,"},{"Start":"04:22.010 ","End":"04:23.660","Text":"let\u0027s say this,"},{"Start":"04:23.660 ","End":"04:26.360","Text":"it can actually move this way."},{"Start":"04:26.360 ","End":"04:29.405","Text":"Once you have a single bond, there\u0027s more flexibility."},{"Start":"04:29.405 ","End":"04:31.250","Text":"Once you have more bonds,"},{"Start":"04:31.250 ","End":"04:33.088","Text":"it makes it a little more rigid,"},{"Start":"04:33.088 ","End":"04:39.875","Text":"and then more difficult to move because now it\u0027s held by 2 bonds."},{"Start":"04:39.875 ","End":"04:43.385","Text":"So if you think of it, if you\u0027re holding someone else\u0027s hand,"},{"Start":"04:43.385 ","End":"04:46.040","Text":"just 1 hand, you can do a lot of things"},{"Start":"04:46.040 ","End":"04:48.935","Text":"together even if you\u0027re thinking of dancing, let\u0027s think salsa."},{"Start":"04:48.935 ","End":"04:52.040","Text":"When you separate and have 1 hand holding, you can turn,"},{"Start":"04:52.040 ","End":"04:54.190","Text":"you can spread out, you can get closer,"},{"Start":"04:54.190 ","End":"04:56.735","Text":"you can pass each other and still be holding hands."},{"Start":"04:56.735 ","End":"05:00.150","Text":"The minute you hold 2 hands,"},{"Start":"05:00.150 ","End":"05:01.905","Text":"you can\u0027t release 1 hand,"},{"Start":"05:01.905 ","End":"05:06.385","Text":"you can\u0027t separate as far apart to stay closer together,"},{"Start":"05:06.385 ","End":"05:12.455","Text":"and you have more limitation on your ability to actually pivot within the same place."},{"Start":"05:12.455 ","End":"05:18.290","Text":"So single bonds are somewhat flexible while when you have more bonds,"},{"Start":"05:18.290 ","End":"05:19.625","Text":"it\u0027s a little more rigid."},{"Start":"05:19.625 ","End":"05:23.540","Text":"So double bonds are shorter and more rigid with an average length of"},{"Start":"05:23.540 ","End":"05:28.338","Text":"0.134 nanometers versus 0.154 nanometers,"},{"Start":"05:28.338 ","End":"05:30.675","Text":"1 bond versus 2 bonds."},{"Start":"05:30.675 ","End":"05:32.130","Text":"These are still small,"},{"Start":"05:32.130 ","End":"05:35.825","Text":"small lengths but it makes a difference."},{"Start":"05:35.825 ","End":"05:38.810","Text":"Double bonds are shorter and more rigid with an average length of"},{"Start":"05:38.810 ","End":"05:42.080","Text":"0.134 nanometers versus 1.54 nanometers."},{"Start":"05:42.080 ","End":"05:44.966","Text":"Now, these are very small distances yet."},{"Start":"05:44.966 ","End":"05:50.300","Text":"It\u0027s still significant difference when you\u0027re talking even though at the small distance."},{"Start":"05:50.300 ","End":"05:54.600","Text":"So double bonds are shorter and more rigid."},{"Start":"05:54.600 ","End":"05:57.224","Text":"Again, think of that example of 2 people dancing."},{"Start":"05:57.224 ","End":"05:58.430","Text":"If they\u0027re holding 1 hand,"},{"Start":"05:58.430 ","End":"06:00.845","Text":"they can separate, they can turn, they can twist,"},{"Start":"06:00.845 ","End":"06:02.150","Text":"and when they have the 2 hands together,"},{"Start":"06:02.150 ","End":"06:03.538","Text":"they are standing closer,"},{"Start":"06:03.538 ","End":"06:05.500","Text":"and they have less ability to move."},{"Start":"06:05.500 ","End":"06:08.600","Text":"This bonding versatility is an important characteristic of"},{"Start":"06:08.600 ","End":"06:13.475","Text":"carbon compounds ability to play a major role in cells."},{"Start":"06:13.475 ","End":"06:16.850","Text":"So this bonding with itself and with"},{"Start":"06:16.850 ","End":"06:22.085","Text":"other elements allows for a lot of room for variability."},{"Start":"06:22.085 ","End":"06:25.070","Text":"Most biomolecules are a variant of hydrocarbons"},{"Start":"06:25.070 ","End":"06:28.595","Text":"in which the hydrogen atom was replaced by a functional group."},{"Start":"06:28.595 ","End":"06:32.330","Text":"So basically, you will have carbon, oxygen,"},{"Start":"06:32.330 ","End":"06:35.203","Text":"hydrogen and it was replaced carbon,"},{"Start":"06:35.203 ","End":"06:37.160","Text":"oxygen, hydrogen, hydroxyl group,"},{"Start":"06:37.160 ","End":"06:40.220","Text":"and OH, current oxygen, hydrogen,"},{"Start":"06:40.220 ","End":"06:42.467","Text":"and carbon, oxygen,"},{"Start":"06:42.467 ","End":"06:46.055","Text":"hydrogen, another oxygen going to a carboxyl group."},{"Start":"06:46.055 ","End":"06:50.690","Text":"So you see this change of the hydrocarbon,"},{"Start":"06:50.690 ","End":"06:52.730","Text":"hydro, hydrogen,"},{"Start":"06:52.730 ","End":"07:00.170","Text":"carbon has variance by taking the hydrogen atom and being replaced by a different group."},{"Start":"07:00.170 ","End":"07:02.770","Text":"You have a lot of variants that you can look at."},{"Start":"07:02.770 ","End":"07:07.465","Text":"This results in specific chemical properties for the molecule."},{"Start":"07:07.465 ","End":"07:13.445","Text":"These also form various families of organic compounds including alcohol,"},{"Start":"07:13.445 ","End":"07:19.284","Text":"where you have 1 or more hydroxyl groups as you see on the left."},{"Start":"07:19.284 ","End":"07:20.835","Text":"Or you have amines,"},{"Start":"07:20.835 ","End":"07:24.620","Text":"where you have amino groups as you see in the center here."},{"Start":"07:24.620 ","End":"07:26.795","Text":"Amino is a group that has nitrogen,"},{"Start":"07:26.795 ","End":"07:31.818","Text":"hydroxyl, hydrogen, oxygen. Get the term, hydro-"},{"Start":"07:31.818 ","End":"07:34.930","Text":"Oxo, oxygen OH."},{"Start":"07:34.930 ","End":"07:39.000","Text":"Now another chemical element can form molecules of such diverse sizes, shapes,"},{"Start":"07:39.000 ","End":"07:40.790","Text":"and composition therefore,"},{"Start":"07:40.790 ","End":"07:43.820","Text":"carbon is a very essential element."},{"Start":"07:43.820 ","End":"07:46.805","Text":"Biomolecules can be polyfunctional."},{"Start":"07:46.805 ","End":"07:50.585","Text":"They can have 2 or more types of functional groups,"},{"Start":"07:50.585 ","End":"07:54.495","Text":"each with its own properties and that is meaning of polyfunctional,"},{"Start":"07:54.495 ","End":"07:57.705","Text":"so biomolecules can be polyfunctional."},{"Start":"07:57.705 ","End":"08:00.640","Text":"What does this mean? All cells have a collection of"},{"Start":"08:00.640 ","End":"08:03.844","Text":"different smaller organic molecules dissolved in the cytosol."},{"Start":"08:03.844 ","End":"08:05.895","Text":"These are called metabolites."},{"Start":"08:05.895 ","End":"08:09.960","Text":"They all have possibly 1000 different ones with"},{"Start":"08:09.960 ","End":"08:15.945","Text":"intracellular concentrations ranging from nanomolar to millimolar, so small amounts."},{"Start":"08:15.945 ","End":"08:19.580","Text":"These are referred to as metabolites."},{"Start":"08:19.580 ","End":"08:22.755","Text":"They are part of major pathways in the cell and they\u0027re"},{"Start":"08:22.755 ","End":"08:27.625","Text":"either an intermediate or an end-product of metabolic reactions."},{"Start":"08:27.625 ","End":"08:30.995","Text":"Generally, these are catalyzed by enzymes that naturally"},{"Start":"08:30.995 ","End":"08:34.400","Text":"occur within cells and are part of metabolism,"},{"Start":"08:34.400 ","End":"08:36.050","Text":"part of this process."},{"Start":"08:36.050 ","End":"08:38.860","Text":"The metabolites are split into 2 major groups."},{"Start":"08:38.860 ","End":"08:43.550","Text":"You have primary and secondary metabolites so what does this mean?"},{"Start":"08:43.550 ","End":"08:45.960","Text":"Start with the primary metabolites."},{"Start":"08:45.960 ","End":"08:50.325","Text":"These are the same in every species in all organisms."},{"Start":"08:50.325 ","End":"08:53.660","Text":"They perform physiological functions in the body."},{"Start":"08:53.660 ","End":"08:57.180","Text":"They are bound within the plasma membrane in"},{"Start":"08:57.180 ","End":"09:01.605","Text":"the cell and the membrane transport it can catalyze the movement of some molecules."},{"Start":"09:01.605 ","End":"09:04.130","Text":"We said the plasma membrane in cells."},{"Start":"09:04.130 ","End":"09:09.270","Text":"It\u0027s something that limits the ability of things to move in and out through"},{"Start":"09:09.270 ","End":"09:15.305","Text":"the plasma membrane and that\u0027s how it keeps and maintains the cell and its contents,"},{"Start":"09:15.305 ","End":"09:20.170","Text":"yet there are membrane transporters that can catalyze the movement of some molecules,"},{"Start":"09:20.170 ","End":"09:27.455","Text":"basically initiate or just have molecules move along and through the membrane."},{"Start":"09:27.455 ","End":"09:32.080","Text":"These membrane transporters allow for movement of some molecules in and out of"},{"Start":"09:32.080 ","End":"09:36.300","Text":"the cell or between compartments in eukaryotic cells."},{"Start":"09:36.300 ","End":"09:39.655","Text":"Because as we talked about in an earlier section,"},{"Start":"09:39.655 ","End":"09:43.700","Text":"the eukaryotic cell has several membranous organs."},{"Start":"09:43.700 ","End":"09:46.150","Text":"For example, we have carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"09:46.150 ","End":"09:50.165","Text":"vitamins, amino acids, and nucleotides."},{"Start":"09:50.165 ","End":"09:54.275","Text":"These are all primary metabolites."},{"Start":"09:54.275 ","End":"09:57.120","Text":"Examples of primary metabolites are carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"09:57.120 ","End":"09:59.030","Text":"vitamins, amino acids, nucleotides."},{"Start":"09:59.030 ","End":"10:02.435","Text":"These are all the same in every species."},{"Start":"10:02.435 ","End":"10:07.890","Text":"These are necessary for basic physiological functions in the body"},{"Start":"10:07.890 ","End":"10:14.295","Text":"and they can move with some regulation in and out and through the membrane."},{"Start":"10:14.295 ","End":"10:17.680","Text":"Now let\u0027s move on to secondary metabolites."},{"Start":"10:17.680 ","End":"10:22.690","Text":"These are specific to certain types of cells or species organisms."},{"Start":"10:22.690 ","End":"10:25.495","Text":"These can be considered things that characterize the organism."},{"Start":"10:25.495 ","End":"10:26.945","Text":"For example, in plants,"},{"Start":"10:26.945 ","End":"10:30.225","Text":"it can give them their scent or their color."},{"Start":"10:30.225 ","End":"10:36.500","Text":"Examples, steroids, pigments, nicotine, caffeine."},{"Start":"10:36.500 ","End":"10:38.880","Text":"When we\u0027re talking about these examples,"},{"Start":"10:38.880 ","End":"10:42.130","Text":"let\u0027s talk about specifically, nicotine."},{"Start":"10:42.130 ","End":"10:48.395","Text":"Nicotine is found in the nightshade family of plants, predominantly in tobacco."},{"Start":"10:48.395 ","End":"10:50.810","Text":"This is what we know it to be in."},{"Start":"10:50.810 ","End":"10:54.470","Text":"It is actually also found in additional plants."},{"Start":"10:54.470 ","End":"11:00.015","Text":"Surprisingly, tomato, potato, eggplant."},{"Start":"11:00.015 ","End":"11:03.500","Text":"These have nicotine in them,"},{"Start":"11:03.500 ","End":"11:05.735","Text":"whereas other plants don\u0027t necessarily have it."},{"Start":"11:05.735 ","End":"11:08.005","Text":"Caffeine is another example."},{"Start":"11:08.005 ","End":"11:11.210","Text":"Caffeine you right away think of coffee."},{"Start":"11:11.210 ","End":"11:18.285","Text":"Coffee beans. Well, caffeine is actually found in approximately 60 plants species."},{"Start":"11:18.285 ","End":"11:19.875","Text":"We have coffee beans,"},{"Start":"11:19.875 ","End":"11:21.569","Text":"we have cocoa beans,"},{"Start":"11:21.569 ","End":"11:23.030","Text":"we have tea leaves."},{"Start":"11:23.030 ","End":"11:26.020","Text":"The secondary metabolites are things that are"},{"Start":"11:26.020 ","End":"11:30.565","Text":"found in specific species and differ from 1 to the other."},{"Start":"11:30.565 ","End":"11:33.440","Text":"We talked about a metabolite."},{"Start":"11:33.440 ","End":"11:36.710","Text":"Now moving from the metabolite to the metabolome,"},{"Start":"11:36.710 ","End":"11:40.050","Text":"this is the network of metabolic reactions and metabolites."},{"Start":"11:40.050 ","End":"11:45.665","Text":"It is the entire collection within a cell and this leads us to metabolomics."},{"Start":"11:45.665 ","End":"11:51.015","Text":"A systematic characterization of the metabolome in specific conditions."},{"Start":"11:51.015 ","End":"11:53.980","Text":"Example, upon exposure to"},{"Start":"11:53.980 ","End":"11:58.834","Text":"a specific pathogen or disease or after administration of a drug,"},{"Start":"11:58.834 ","End":"12:06.785","Text":"you may see a different character of the cell of the metabolome."},{"Start":"12:06.785 ","End":"12:10.435","Text":"It is affected by specific conditions."},{"Start":"12:10.435 ","End":"12:16.760","Text":"Again, if you have exposure to a specific virus or bacteria,"},{"Start":"12:16.760 ","End":"12:18.635","Text":"things will change in response."},{"Start":"12:18.635 ","End":"12:20.470","Text":"If you administered a drug,"},{"Start":"12:20.470 ","End":"12:22.450","Text":"things will change in response."},{"Start":"12:22.450 ","End":"12:26.920","Text":"Many biological molecules or macromolecules that have molecular weights of above 5,000"},{"Start":"12:26.920 ","End":"12:31.865","Text":"and are assembled have relatively simple precursors."},{"Start":"12:31.865 ","End":"12:34.985","Text":"While we have molecules that are very small,"},{"Start":"12:34.985 ","End":"12:40.125","Text":"we also have macromolecules and many of them are and they are quite large."},{"Start":"12:40.125 ","End":"12:46.020","Text":"These are made up of smaller, simple precursors."},{"Start":"12:46.020 ","End":"12:48.875","Text":"Monomers which compose macromolecules have molecular weights"},{"Start":"12:48.875 ","End":"12:51.830","Text":"of 500 or less so you need to have multiple of these."},{"Start":"12:51.830 ","End":"12:55.540","Text":"If we see even 500 and we\u0027re talking about above 5,000,"},{"Start":"12:55.540 ","End":"13:00.345","Text":"you need to have at least 10 of these monomers to comprise this macromolecule."},{"Start":"13:00.345 ","End":"13:04.150","Text":"Monomers which compose macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids and"},{"Start":"13:04.150 ","End":"13:07.940","Text":"polysaccharides have molecular weight of 500 or less,"},{"Start":"13:07.940 ","End":"13:10.190","Text":"and it\u0027s when they\u0027re brought together,"},{"Start":"13:10.190 ","End":"13:12.705","Text":"that they become a macromolecule."},{"Start":"13:12.705 ","End":"13:16.965","Text":"Shorter polymers are called oligomers."},{"Start":"13:16.965 ","End":"13:20.260","Text":"The term oligomers comes from,"},{"Start":"13:20.260 ","End":"13:23.710","Text":"as we\u0027ve talked about many times in biology and in science,"},{"Start":"13:23.710 ","End":"13:30.665","Text":"the Greek language, where Oligos in Greek means few."},{"Start":"13:30.665 ","End":"13:36.454","Text":"Basically, it means stretches of few polymers."},{"Start":"13:36.454 ","End":"13:38.545","Text":"It\u0027s a shorter stretch."},{"Start":"13:38.545 ","End":"13:44.470","Text":"Macromolecules themselves can be further assembled into supermolecular complexes."},{"Start":"13:44.470 ","End":"13:47.145","Text":"These are even bigger than macromolecules,"},{"Start":"13:47.145 ","End":"13:50.945","Text":"so that we have monomers that compose the macromolecules."},{"Start":"13:50.945 ","End":"13:55.325","Text":"The monomers each have a weight of 500 or less."},{"Start":"13:55.325 ","End":"13:58.635","Text":"Then when they make up macromolecules,"},{"Start":"13:58.635 ","End":"14:02.255","Text":"they can weigh at least 5,000."},{"Start":"14:02.255 ","End":"14:06.090","Text":"Then you have shorter polymers that are called oligomers."},{"Start":"14:06.090 ","End":"14:10.325","Text":"Macromolecules themselves can be further assembled"},{"Start":"14:10.325 ","End":"14:15.410","Text":"into a bigger complex called the supermolecular complex."},{"Start":"14:15.410 ","End":"14:19.910","Text":"With this, we basically characterize the biomolecule carbon."},{"Start":"14:19.910 ","End":"14:22.310","Text":"We define metabolite, metabolome,"},{"Start":"14:22.310 ","End":"14:26.700","Text":"and metabolomics, and we described the 2 different types of metabolites in the cell."},{"Start":"14:26.700 ","End":"14:29.164","Text":"We have the primary and the secondary."},{"Start":"14:29.164 ","End":"14:32.410","Text":"I will see you with exercises."}],"ID":27091},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 6","Duration":"4m 13s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26196,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.950","Text":"Let\u0027s dive into the exercise within biochemistry covering topic,"},{"Start":"00:04.950 ","End":"00:08.580","Text":"chemical foundations, chemistry of bio molecules."},{"Start":"00:08.580 ","End":"00:11.325","Text":"Which statement about carbon is false?"},{"Start":"00:11.325 ","End":"00:15.735","Text":"A, It can form single bonds with hydrogen atoms."},{"Start":"00:15.735 ","End":"00:20.385","Text":"B, it can form single and double bonds with oxygen and nitrogen atoms."},{"Start":"00:20.385 ","End":"00:26.070","Text":"C, it can form very stable single bonds with up to 2 other carbons."},{"Start":"00:26.070 ","End":"00:33.765","Text":"D, 2 carbon atoms can share 2 or 3 electron pairs forming double or triple bonds."},{"Start":"00:33.765 ","End":"00:35.955","Text":"Let\u0027s start with the first 1,"},{"Start":"00:35.955 ","End":"00:38.250","Text":"it can form single bonds with hydrogen atoms."},{"Start":"00:38.250 ","End":"00:41.045","Text":"If you remember, we talked about carbon,"},{"Start":"00:41.045 ","End":"00:44.860","Text":"that it can form up to 4 bonds,"},{"Start":"00:44.860 ","End":"00:48.735","Text":"but hydrogen can form 1 bond,"},{"Start":"00:48.735 ","End":"00:54.935","Text":"so that does mean it can form a bond and it can form a single bond."},{"Start":"00:54.935 ","End":"00:57.200","Text":"If you remember in the lecture we had on the slides where there are"},{"Start":"00:57.200 ","End":"01:01.170","Text":"dots and these dots come together and you"},{"Start":"01:01.170 ","End":"01:09.975","Text":"have 2 dots between and this translates to a single bond."},{"Start":"01:09.975 ","End":"01:14.410","Text":"This sounds like it\u0027s true therefore,"},{"Start":"01:14.410 ","End":"01:19.309","Text":"this is not the correct answer because we\u0027re looking for which statement is false."},{"Start":"01:19.309 ","End":"01:25.150","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to B, it can form single and double bonds with oxygen and nitrogen atoms."},{"Start":"01:25.150 ","End":"01:28.825","Text":"Going back, we already talked about carbon can form 4 bonds."},{"Start":"01:28.825 ","End":"01:31.735","Text":"Oxygen, we talked about can form 2 bonds,"},{"Start":"01:31.735 ","End":"01:36.020","Text":"and nitrogen can form 3 bonds."},{"Start":"01:36.020 ","End":"01:41.470","Text":"Carbon, in essence, can form a single bond with oxygen"},{"Start":"01:41.470 ","End":"01:46.765","Text":"or a double bond with oxygen and the same goes for nitrogen."},{"Start":"01:46.765 ","End":"01:50.920","Text":"Therefore, this statement seems reasonable."},{"Start":"01:50.920 ","End":"01:52.630","Text":"Therefore, it isn\u0027t false,"},{"Start":"01:52.630 ","End":"01:54.880","Text":"therefore it is incorrect."},{"Start":"01:54.880 ","End":"01:56.405","Text":"Let\u0027s move to C,"},{"Start":"01:56.405 ","End":"02:01.735","Text":"it can form very stable single bonds with up to 2 other carbons."},{"Start":"02:01.735 ","End":"02:08.930","Text":"Well, 4 possible bonds, you have carbon."},{"Start":"02:09.750 ","End":"02:15.790","Text":"That means we can form single bonds that"},{"Start":"02:15.790 ","End":"02:21.240","Text":"are stable between a carbon and 2 other carbons,"},{"Start":"02:21.240 ","End":"02:24.025","Text":"yet we have the 2 other possible bonds."},{"Start":"02:24.025 ","End":"02:28.960","Text":"Therefore, we can actually bind 4 carbons,"},{"Start":"02:28.960 ","End":"02:32.760","Text":"and not just 2 therefore this is true,"},{"Start":"02:32.760 ","End":"02:36.535","Text":"it can form very stable single bonds with 2 other carbons,"},{"Start":"02:36.535 ","End":"02:40.600","Text":"but it\u0027s not up to 2 other carbons because it can actually form"},{"Start":"02:40.600 ","End":"02:46.320","Text":"very stable single bond with up to 4 other carbons as you see here."},{"Start":"02:46.320 ","End":"02:52.804","Text":"Therefore, this to me sounds like the correct answer because it is false."},{"Start":"02:52.804 ","End":"02:56.300","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to D and see what we have there."},{"Start":"02:56.300 ","End":"03:03.785","Text":"D, 2 carbon atoms can share 2 or 3 electron pairs forming double or triple bonds,"},{"Start":"03:03.785 ","End":"03:08.180","Text":"2 carbons because it has the ability to form 4 bonds,"},{"Start":"03:08.180 ","End":"03:09.695","Text":"can form 1 bond,"},{"Start":"03:09.695 ","End":"03:12.675","Text":"it can form 2 bonds,"},{"Start":"03:12.675 ","End":"03:16.995","Text":"or it can form 3 bonds."},{"Start":"03:16.995 ","End":"03:20.580","Text":"So a single bond,"},{"Start":"03:20.580 ","End":"03:24.600","Text":"a double bond, a triple bond."},{"Start":"03:24.600 ","End":"03:29.255","Text":"So D also seems true."},{"Start":"03:29.255 ","End":"03:32.510","Text":"It is not false, therefore it is incorrect and that leaves"},{"Start":"03:32.510 ","End":"03:35.915","Text":"us with C as the correct answer."},{"Start":"03:35.915 ","End":"03:38.485","Text":"Which statement about carbon is false,"},{"Start":"03:38.485 ","End":"03:42.080","Text":"it can form very stable single bonds with up to 2 other carbons."},{"Start":"03:42.080 ","End":"03:44.420","Text":"What would make this statement true,"},{"Start":"03:44.420 ","End":"03:48.500","Text":"is if we said it can form very stable single bonds with 2 other carbons,"},{"Start":"03:48.500 ","End":"03:51.515","Text":"or it can form very stable single bonds with"},{"Start":"03:51.515 ","End":"03:55.595","Text":"up to 4 other carbons, and there you have it."},{"Start":"03:55.595 ","End":"04:00.170","Text":"It can form very stable single bonds with up to 2 other carbons is the correct answer for"},{"Start":"04:00.170 ","End":"04:06.010","Text":"this question because it can actually form bonds with up to 4 other carbons."},{"Start":"04:06.010 ","End":"04:07.985","Text":"It would be correct if it said,"},{"Start":"04:07.985 ","End":"04:13.890","Text":"it can form very stable single bonds with up to 4 other carbons. Thanks."}],"ID":27092},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 7","Duration":"2m 33s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26197,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.600","Text":"Welcome back. We are within chemical foundation and we have"},{"Start":"00:03.600 ","End":"00:07.005","Text":"an exercise testing us on our knowledge of the section,"},{"Start":"00:07.005 ","End":"00:10.200","Text":"chemistry of biomolecules. Let\u0027s dive in."},{"Start":"00:10.200 ","End":"00:14.790","Text":"What can you say about the flexibility and length of single bonds versus double bonds?"},{"Start":"00:14.790 ","End":"00:16.350","Text":"Now, remember I gave that example,"},{"Start":"00:16.350 ","End":"00:20.940","Text":"single bond like a couple dancing that\u0027s holding 1 hand versus a double bond,"},{"Start":"00:20.940 ","End":"00:23.730","Text":"a couple dancing holding both hands."},{"Start":"00:23.730 ","End":"00:25.095","Text":"What does that mean?"},{"Start":"00:25.095 ","End":"00:31.905","Text":"Well, the single bonds are more flexible allowing free rotation around each single bond."},{"Start":"00:31.905 ","End":"00:36.800","Text":"Holding 1 arm, you can rotate and move on that 1 arm on that single bond."},{"Start":"00:36.800 ","End":"00:41.015","Text":"Unless a very large or highly charged group is attached to both carbon atoms,"},{"Start":"00:41.015 ","End":"00:43.099","Text":"which can restrict rotation."},{"Start":"00:43.099 ","End":"00:48.350","Text":"That just basically means that even if you have a single bond on let\u0027s say"},{"Start":"00:48.350 ","End":"00:54.845","Text":"2 carbons and then you have a big group here,"},{"Start":"00:54.845 ","End":"00:58.220","Text":"this big whatever complex,"},{"Start":"00:58.220 ","End":"01:02.315","Text":"and also here you have some big group."},{"Start":"01:02.315 ","End":"01:07.910","Text":"It means that this may push it away where the bond between the carbons will actually be"},{"Start":"01:07.910 ","End":"01:14.269","Text":"a little diagonal so that there\u0027s room for each one of the groups to exist."},{"Start":"01:14.269 ","End":"01:18.680","Text":"Basically that means that these carbons can actually"},{"Start":"01:18.680 ","End":"01:25.670","Text":"have this flexibility of the bond to move as freely up and down,"},{"Start":"01:25.670 ","End":"01:32.780","Text":"because it is limited by a highly charged group or a group that\u0027s a big size."},{"Start":"01:32.780 ","End":"01:35.300","Text":"Now, where does the charge come into play?"},{"Start":"01:35.300 ","End":"01:38.449","Text":"When we think of batteries plus and plus repel,"},{"Start":"01:38.449 ","End":"01:40.615","Text":"negative and negative repel."},{"Start":"01:40.615 ","End":"01:46.010","Text":"Basically electrical charges or the relationship is so if you"},{"Start":"01:46.010 ","End":"01:52.005","Text":"have highly charged groups that also can cause limitation."},{"Start":"01:52.005 ","End":"01:54.810","Text":"Where if these are 2 positively charged groups,"},{"Start":"01:54.810 ","End":"01:56.195","Text":"they will repel each other."},{"Start":"01:56.195 ","End":"02:01.085","Text":"Therefore, these 2 C\u0027s will not end up getting close to each other like this."},{"Start":"02:01.085 ","End":"02:05.315","Text":"Furthermore, double bonds are shorter and more rigid than single bonds,"},{"Start":"02:05.315 ","End":"02:08.510","Text":"limiting the rotation around its axis with an average"},{"Start":"02:08.510 ","End":"02:12.725","Text":"of 0.134 nanometers versus 0.154 nanometers."},{"Start":"02:12.725 ","End":"02:16.715","Text":"This is the distance in a double bond,"},{"Start":"02:16.715 ","End":"02:20.135","Text":"and this is the distance in a single bond."},{"Start":"02:20.135 ","End":"02:22.384","Text":"The double bond is much tighter."},{"Start":"02:22.384 ","End":"02:25.070","Text":"Again, that couple that\u0027s holding both arms is standing"},{"Start":"02:25.070 ","End":"02:27.965","Text":"closer to each other than if it\u0027s just holding 1 arm,"},{"Start":"02:27.965 ","End":"02:30.410","Text":"it can be farther apart and more spread out."},{"Start":"02:30.410 ","End":"02:34.140","Text":"That\u0027s what we know about single versus double bonds."}],"ID":27093},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 8","Duration":"1m 33s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26198,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:01.650","Text":"Hey there, welcome back."},{"Start":"00:01.650 ","End":"00:04.320","Text":"We are in an exercise within chemistry of"},{"Start":"00:04.320 ","End":"00:08.745","Text":"biomolecules included in chemical foundation of biochemistry."},{"Start":"00:08.745 ","End":"00:10.140","Text":"Part I."},{"Start":"00:10.140 ","End":"00:11.370","Text":"What is the term for a collection of"},{"Start":"00:11.370 ","End":"00:15.820","Text":"different small organic molecules dissolved in the cell\u0027s cytosol."},{"Start":"00:17.990 ","End":"00:22.020","Text":"We talked about that there can be thousands of these and these can be"},{"Start":"00:22.020 ","End":"00:25.500","Text":"either in common between different cells or a little bit different,"},{"Start":"00:25.500 ","End":"00:29.295","Text":"and the term we use for these metabolites."},{"Start":"00:29.295 ","End":"00:31.010","Text":"We have metabolites and then these are"},{"Start":"00:31.010 ","End":"00:34.040","Text":"small organic molecules dissolved in the cell\u0027s cytosol."},{"Start":"00:34.040 ","End":"00:37.280","Text":"Part II. What is their role in the cell?"},{"Start":"00:37.280 ","End":"00:41.855","Text":"What is the role of metabolites in the cell?"},{"Start":"00:41.855 ","End":"00:43.610","Text":"When we think of the word metabolites,"},{"Start":"00:43.610 ","End":"00:46.970","Text":"it reminds us metabolism."},{"Start":"00:46.970 ","End":"00:48.710","Text":"This gives us a hint."},{"Start":"00:48.710 ","End":"00:54.290","Text":"Metabolites are either an intermediate or an end-product of metabolic reactions."},{"Start":"00:54.290 ","End":"00:56.780","Text":"These are generally catalyzed by enzymes that naturally"},{"Start":"00:56.780 ","End":"00:59.570","Text":"occur within cells and are part of metabolism."},{"Start":"00:59.570 ","End":"01:03.390","Text":"We have metabolism in cells,"},{"Start":"01:03.390 ","End":"01:09.825","Text":"and these have various metabolic reactions that result in"},{"Start":"01:09.825 ","End":"01:17.060","Text":"metabolites as their end product or an intermediate product throughout the process,"},{"Start":"01:17.060 ","End":"01:20.075","Text":"and intermediate product then becomes an end product."},{"Start":"01:20.075 ","End":"01:22.215","Text":"These are metabolites."},{"Start":"01:22.215 ","End":"01:26.329","Text":"Either they\u0027re an intermediate or an end-product of metabolic reactions"},{"Start":"01:26.329 ","End":"01:28.430","Text":"and are generally catalyzed by enzymes that naturally"},{"Start":"01:28.430 ","End":"01:30.605","Text":"occur within cells and are part of metabolism."},{"Start":"01:30.605 ","End":"01:34.019","Text":"There you go. Let\u0027s move on."}],"ID":27094},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 9","Duration":"3m 5s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26199,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.350","Text":"We\u0027re back with an exercise within chemistry of biomolecules covered in"},{"Start":"00:04.350 ","End":"00:08.240","Text":"chemical foundation within biochemistry. Let\u0027s dive in."},{"Start":"00:08.240 ","End":"00:09.420","Text":"What is the difference between"},{"Start":"00:09.420 ","End":"00:12.510","Text":"primary and secondary metabolites and give examples of each."},{"Start":"00:12.510 ","End":"00:13.710","Text":"We talked about metabolites."},{"Start":"00:13.710 ","End":"00:17.700","Text":"These are either intermediate or end-products of metabolic reactions within"},{"Start":"00:17.700 ","End":"00:22.950","Text":"the metabolism and there are primary metabolites and secondary metabolites,"},{"Start":"00:22.950 ","End":"00:24.615","Text":"these are found in cells."},{"Start":"00:24.615 ","End":"00:28.100","Text":"What is the difference? Primary metabolites."},{"Start":"00:28.100 ","End":"00:32.630","Text":"These are the same in every species in all organisms,"},{"Start":"00:32.630 ","End":"00:36.185","Text":"meaning that all organisms have these metabolites in them."},{"Start":"00:36.185 ","End":"00:38.210","Text":"They perform physiological functions in"},{"Start":"00:38.210 ","End":"00:40.790","Text":"the body and are bound within the plasma membrane."},{"Start":"00:40.790 ","End":"00:42.965","Text":"Meaning within the cell and the plasma membrane,"},{"Start":"00:42.965 ","End":"00:46.070","Text":"these metabolites are maintained and if you remember,"},{"Start":"00:46.070 ","End":"00:51.800","Text":"we talked about they can move in and out by having membrane transporters,"},{"Start":"00:51.800 ","End":"00:55.070","Text":"but otherwise they are maintained within the membrane that is not"},{"Start":"00:55.070 ","End":"00:59.810","Text":"permeable freely for metabolites to move back and forth."},{"Start":"00:59.810 ","End":"01:03.470","Text":"That moves us to the examples of these carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"01:03.470 ","End":"01:05.660","Text":"vitamins, amino acids, and nucleotides."},{"Start":"01:05.660 ","End":"01:08.810","Text":"These are found in every species."},{"Start":"01:08.810 ","End":"01:14.045","Text":"All organisms have carbohydrates, these supply energy."},{"Start":"01:14.045 ","End":"01:16.040","Text":"All organisms have vitamins,"},{"Start":"01:16.040 ","End":"01:19.580","Text":"these are needed for functionality in the cells."},{"Start":"01:19.580 ","End":"01:21.155","Text":"All have amino acids,"},{"Start":"01:21.155 ","End":"01:25.850","Text":"these make up proteins and we have nucleotides"},{"Start":"01:25.850 ","End":"01:32.179","Text":"that are part of our genetic code or our genome, our genetic material."},{"Start":"01:32.179 ","End":"01:34.700","Text":"That means that brings us to secondary metabolites."},{"Start":"01:34.700 ","End":"01:38.840","Text":"Secondary metabolites are specific to"},{"Start":"01:38.840 ","End":"01:43.475","Text":"certain types of cells or species or organisms meaning,"},{"Start":"01:43.475 ","End":"01:46.430","Text":"they are specific to a certain organism or to a certain cell."},{"Start":"01:46.430 ","End":"01:48.125","Text":"If you compare 2 different cells,"},{"Start":"01:48.125 ","End":"01:50.135","Text":"these metabolites can be different."},{"Start":"01:50.135 ","End":"01:56.970","Text":"They can have 2 cells where 1 cell has x and 1 cell has y or 2 cells that have x,"},{"Start":"01:56.970 ","End":"01:59.175","Text":"but 1 has 1x and 1 has 4x,"},{"Start":"01:59.175 ","End":"02:01.790","Text":"so these can be different between cells or different"},{"Start":"02:01.790 ","End":"02:04.400","Text":"between organisms and that they exist or don\u0027t exist,"},{"Start":"02:04.400 ","End":"02:08.113","Text":"they\u0027re present or not present or that they\u0027re present in both cells,"},{"Start":"02:08.113 ","End":"02:09.605","Text":"but at different levels."},{"Start":"02:09.605 ","End":"02:10.850","Text":"What are examples of these?"},{"Start":"02:10.850 ","End":"02:16.190","Text":"We talked about steroids, pigments, nicotine, caffeine."},{"Start":"02:16.190 ","End":"02:18.860","Text":"We talk about pigments."},{"Start":"02:18.860 ","End":"02:20.060","Text":"When we talk about these,"},{"Start":"02:20.060 ","End":"02:23.170","Text":"this means in essence like color."},{"Start":"02:23.170 ","End":"02:26.420","Text":"Plants, many plants have green."},{"Start":"02:26.420 ","End":"02:29.960","Text":"This is due to chloroplasts and pigmentation that is green."},{"Start":"02:29.960 ","End":"02:32.795","Text":"You also have flowers that are red or purple."},{"Start":"02:32.795 ","End":"02:36.155","Text":"These are different pigments and these are found differently"},{"Start":"02:36.155 ","End":"02:39.770","Text":"between different species that have different colored flowers,"},{"Start":"02:39.770 ","End":"02:41.720","Text":"but within the same species,"},{"Start":"02:41.720 ","End":"02:42.995","Text":"within the same plant,"},{"Start":"02:42.995 ","End":"02:44.885","Text":"you will have a flower that\u0027s pink,"},{"Start":"02:44.885 ","End":"02:46.580","Text":"but the leaves are green,"},{"Start":"02:46.580 ","End":"02:47.975","Text":"so it\u0027s the same species,"},{"Start":"02:47.975 ","End":"02:51.080","Text":"but within different cell types,"},{"Start":"02:51.080 ","End":"02:54.065","Text":"it has different pigments and there you have it."},{"Start":"02:54.065 ","End":"02:57.308","Text":"Primary metabolites, the same in every species in"},{"Start":"02:57.308 ","End":"03:03.335","Text":"all organisms and secondary metabolites specific to certain types of cells or species."},{"Start":"03:03.335 ","End":"03:06.210","Text":"Thank you. Hopefully that was clear."}],"ID":27095},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Three Dimensional Structure - Configuration and Conformation of biomolecules Part 1","Duration":"10m 1s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26200,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.080 ","End":"00:03.990","Text":"Hey there, we are within chemical foundation and"},{"Start":"00:03.990 ","End":"00:07.335","Text":"we will be talking about 3-dimensional structure,"},{"Start":"00:07.335 ","End":"00:11.205","Text":"configuration and conformation of biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:11.205 ","End":"00:12.420","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:12.420 ","End":"00:16.500","Text":"you will be able to define stereochemistry, stereoisomers,"},{"Start":"00:16.500 ","End":"00:19.590","Text":"describe and name different types of isomers and"},{"Start":"00:19.590 ","End":"00:23.670","Text":"explain the significance of configuration and conformation of biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:23.670 ","End":"00:28.180","Text":"There\u0027s a lot of information and I will split this into 2 parts."},{"Start":"00:28.580 ","End":"00:33.215","Text":"The first part, we will actually zoom in"},{"Start":"00:33.215 ","End":"00:37.565","Text":"and cover information so that by the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:37.565 ","End":"00:38.965","Text":"this Part 1,"},{"Start":"00:38.965 ","End":"00:41.060","Text":"you will be able to define stereochemistry,"},{"Start":"00:41.060 ","End":"00:44.180","Text":"stereoisomers, describe and name different types of isomers,"},{"Start":"00:44.180 ","End":"00:50.285","Text":"understand the concept of geometric isomers and define a chiral center."},{"Start":"00:50.285 ","End":"00:53.795","Text":"Here we go, the arrangement of the molecules,"},{"Start":"00:53.795 ","End":"00:56.210","Text":"atoms in 3-dimensional space."},{"Start":"00:56.210 ","End":"01:01.700","Text":"Its stereochemistry is central to its function,"},{"Start":"01:01.700 ","End":"01:06.470","Text":"as well as the previously mentioned functional groups and covalent bonds of a molecule."},{"Start":"01:06.470 ","End":"01:09.320","Text":"But what this is saying is that the arrangement,"},{"Start":"01:09.320 ","End":"01:14.390","Text":"not only what is bound and how many bonds there are,"},{"Start":"01:14.390 ","End":"01:20.225","Text":"but also the arrangement in 3-dimensional space contributes to the function."},{"Start":"01:20.225 ","End":"01:24.155","Text":"Carbon-containing compounds commonly exist to stereoisomers,"},{"Start":"01:24.155 ","End":"01:26.960","Text":"molecules with the same chemical bonds and"},{"Start":"01:26.960 ","End":"01:31.055","Text":"same chemical formula, but different configuration."},{"Start":"01:31.055 ","End":"01:35.030","Text":"The fixed spatial arrangement of atom is the configuration,"},{"Start":"01:35.030 ","End":"01:40.390","Text":"meaning it is something that doesn\u0027t change, it is fixed."},{"Start":"01:40.390 ","End":"01:50.210","Text":"Stereoisomers are carbon-containing compounds that are similar."},{"Start":"01:50.210 ","End":"01:53.360","Text":"They have the same chemical bonds and same chemical formula,"},{"Start":"01:53.360 ","End":"01:58.430","Text":"but they have a different 3-dimensional orientation."},{"Start":"01:58.430 ","End":"02:04.205","Text":"In stereochemistry, stereoisomers, or spatial isomerism,"},{"Start":"02:04.205 ","End":"02:06.890","Text":"is a form of isomerism in which molecules have"},{"Start":"02:06.890 ","End":"02:10.370","Text":"the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms,"},{"Start":"02:10.370 ","End":"02:14.525","Text":"but different in 3-dimensional orientation of the atoms in space."},{"Start":"02:14.525 ","End":"02:16.204","Text":"If we look here,"},{"Start":"02:16.204 ","End":"02:22.534","Text":"you basically have the carbon atom bound to the same 4 groups."},{"Start":"02:22.534 ","End":"02:25.730","Text":"Yet, you see the orientation is different."},{"Start":"02:25.730 ","End":"02:29.215","Text":"We have the red here is on the right and here it\u0027s on the left."},{"Start":"02:29.215 ","End":"02:32.240","Text":"When you have stereoisomers that are of this,"},{"Start":"02:32.240 ","End":"02:37.955","Text":"you can signify one as R and one as S based on the orientation."},{"Start":"02:37.955 ","End":"02:41.690","Text":"Interactions between biomolecules are stereospecific."},{"Start":"02:41.690 ","End":"02:45.800","Text":"It requires specific configurations of interacting molecules."},{"Start":"02:45.800 ","End":"02:49.190","Text":"This basically means that they can\u0027t just interact in any way,"},{"Start":"02:49.190 ","End":"02:52.745","Text":"there is an orientation for their interactions."},{"Start":"02:52.745 ","End":"02:56.000","Text":"Configuration denotes the spatial arrangement of"},{"Start":"02:56.000 ","End":"02:58.460","Text":"inorganic molecule that is conferred by the presence"},{"Start":"02:58.460 ","End":"03:00.980","Text":"of either double bonds around which there is"},{"Start":"03:00.980 ","End":"03:05.360","Text":"no freedom of rotation or"},{"Start":"03:05.360 ","End":"03:11.080","Text":"chiral centers around which substituent groups are arranged in a specific sequence."},{"Start":"03:11.080 ","End":"03:13.369","Text":"In chemistry generally,"},{"Start":"03:13.369 ","End":"03:20.985","Text":"the term substituent group is interchangeable with functional group or side chain."},{"Start":"03:20.985 ","End":"03:23.750","Text":"It\u0027s basically a group of atoms that replaces"},{"Start":"03:23.750 ","End":"03:27.395","Text":"the hydrogen atoms and the parent chain of the hydrocarbon."},{"Start":"03:27.395 ","End":"03:29.810","Text":"Basically you could think of these as functional groups or"},{"Start":"03:29.810 ","End":"03:33.875","Text":"side chains that aren\u0027t just the normal hydrogen."},{"Start":"03:33.875 ","End":"03:39.140","Text":"Configuration denotes the spatial arrangement of an organic molecule that is conferred by"},{"Start":"03:39.140 ","End":"03:41.420","Text":"the presence of either double bonds"},{"Start":"03:41.420 ","End":"03:44.570","Text":"around which there isn\u0027t the ability to move or rotate,"},{"Start":"03:44.570 ","End":"03:48.320","Text":"or chiral centers around which the side groups,"},{"Start":"03:48.320 ","End":"03:50.165","Text":"the functional groups, the side chains,"},{"Start":"03:50.165 ","End":"03:53.905","Text":"are arranged in a specific sequence."},{"Start":"03:53.905 ","End":"03:57.200","Text":"Chiral center. Just to reiterate,"},{"Start":"03:57.200 ","End":"04:00.560","Text":"a chiral center of an atom is the atom and a molecule that"},{"Start":"04:00.560 ","End":"04:03.845","Text":"is bonded to 4 different chemical species."},{"Start":"04:03.845 ","End":"04:06.080","Text":"It is asymmetric."},{"Start":"04:06.080 ","End":"04:07.955","Text":"If we saw before,"},{"Start":"04:07.955 ","End":"04:09.800","Text":"we saw the figure,"},{"Start":"04:09.800 ","End":"04:17.810","Text":"we had a carbon and 4 different chemicals or colors around it."},{"Start":"04:17.810 ","End":"04:22.445","Text":"That would be a chiral center and therefore, it is asymmetric."},{"Start":"04:22.445 ","End":"04:25.385","Text":"Chiral object is not identical with its mirror image."},{"Start":"04:25.385 ","End":"04:27.965","Text":"Chiral objects have a handedness."},{"Start":"04:27.965 ","End":"04:32.680","Text":"Examples of something that\u0027s a chiral object that has a handedness is a golf club."},{"Start":"04:32.680 ","End":"04:35.720","Text":"It\u0027s not the same if you flip it around or if you turn it around."},{"Start":"04:35.720 ","End":"04:39.215","Text":"Scissors. Remember the holes are somewhat different."},{"Start":"04:39.215 ","End":"04:41.750","Text":"Shoes. Again, they have a handedness,"},{"Start":"04:41.750 ","End":"04:45.185","Text":"they have a direction, there\u0027s a left and a right, a corkscrew."},{"Start":"04:45.185 ","End":"04:47.620","Text":"These are chiral objects."},{"Start":"04:47.620 ","End":"04:50.780","Text":"Chiros in Greek means hand."},{"Start":"04:50.780 ","End":"04:54.050","Text":"Remember many of our terms originated from the Greek language,"},{"Start":"04:54.050 ","End":"04:55.355","Text":"Chiros means hand,"},{"Start":"04:55.355 ","End":"04:58.377","Text":"meaning chiral object has a directionality,"},{"Start":"04:58.377 ","End":"04:59.555","Text":"a left and right hand,"},{"Start":"04:59.555 ","End":"05:02.230","Text":"even though they are somewhat the same,"},{"Start":"05:02.230 ","End":"05:07.640","Text":"5 fingers, thumb, etc, they have directionality."},{"Start":"05:07.640 ","End":"05:11.180","Text":"An atom that is connected to 3 different atoms or"},{"Start":"05:11.180 ","End":"05:14.630","Text":"groups of atoms is called a stereocenter."},{"Start":"05:14.630 ","End":"05:20.060","Text":"Stereocenter is an atom that is connected to 3 different atoms or groups of atoms."},{"Start":"05:20.060 ","End":"05:23.435","Text":"This is versus a chiral center where there are 4."},{"Start":"05:23.435 ","End":"05:25.880","Text":"Identifying characteristic of stereoisomers is"},{"Start":"05:25.880 ","End":"05:28.280","Text":"that they cannot be converted from 1 to the"},{"Start":"05:28.280 ","End":"05:33.680","Text":"other without temporarily breaking at least one of the covalent bonds."},{"Start":"05:33.680 ","End":"05:36.755","Text":"You can\u0027t just move them around."},{"Start":"05:36.755 ","End":"05:41.615","Text":"You can\u0027t just twist them around and then it will be changing them."},{"Start":"05:41.615 ","End":"05:45.410","Text":"Rather, stereoisomers have to"},{"Start":"05:45.410 ","End":"05:52.910","Text":"actually have a bond be broken in order for them to exist."},{"Start":"05:52.910 ","End":"05:57.110","Text":"Let\u0027s go into the different types of isomers."},{"Start":"05:57.110 ","End":"06:01.775","Text":"We\u0027ll start with geometric isomers or cis-trans isomers."},{"Start":"06:01.775 ","End":"06:04.820","Text":"These differ in the arrangement of their substituting groups"},{"Start":"06:04.820 ","End":"06:07.910","Text":"with regard to their non-rotating double bonds."},{"Start":"06:07.910 ","End":"06:11.300","Text":"Remember double bonds do not allow for multiplication."},{"Start":"06:11.300 ","End":"06:13.700","Text":"They either have groups on the same side of"},{"Start":"06:13.700 ","End":"06:17.810","Text":"the double bond or on different sides of the double bond."},{"Start":"06:17.810 ","End":"06:20.330","Text":"Cis in Latin means on this side."},{"Start":"06:20.330 ","End":"06:22.940","Text":"In this molecule, what you are seeing in"},{"Start":"06:22.940 ","End":"06:25.850","Text":"this geometric isomer is that there\u0027s"},{"Start":"06:25.850 ","End":"06:29.690","Text":"the double bond and you have the same substituent group,"},{"Start":"06:29.690 ","End":"06:33.995","Text":"the same side group on the same side of the double bond."},{"Start":"06:33.995 ","End":"06:37.340","Text":"This will be cis on the same side."},{"Start":"06:37.340 ","End":"06:40.295","Text":"You can also try to remember it by cis like from sister."},{"Start":"06:40.295 ","End":"06:43.375","Text":"They are next to each other."},{"Start":"06:43.375 ","End":"06:46.550","Text":"Both same parents and so sisters,"},{"Start":"06:46.550 ","End":"06:47.825","Text":"they\u0027re on the same side."},{"Start":"06:47.825 ","End":"06:52.295","Text":"The other option is having groups on opposite sides of the double bond."},{"Start":"06:52.295 ","End":"06:56.075","Text":"This will be trans and trans in Latin means across."},{"Start":"06:56.075 ","End":"07:02.330","Text":"Geometric or configurational isomerism is when you have cis or"},{"Start":"07:02.330 ","End":"07:05.180","Text":"trans with cis indicating that the functional groups are on"},{"Start":"07:05.180 ","End":"07:08.930","Text":"the same side of the double bond of the chain,"},{"Start":"07:08.930 ","End":"07:13.300","Text":"while trans indicate that the functional groups are on opposing side of the carbon chain."},{"Start":"07:13.300 ","End":"07:17.975","Text":"Cis and trans play into functionality."},{"Start":"07:17.975 ","End":"07:19.700","Text":"Thinking of an enzyme,"},{"Start":"07:19.700 ","End":"07:21.650","Text":"a binding site on an enzyme, for example,"},{"Start":"07:21.650 ","End":"07:26.705","Text":"that is complimentary to one of these molecules would not be complimentary to the other."},{"Start":"07:26.705 ","End":"07:29.180","Text":"Which explains why the 2 compounds have"},{"Start":"07:29.180 ","End":"07:33.380","Text":"distinct biological roles despite their similar chemical makeup."},{"Start":"07:33.380 ","End":"07:41.135","Text":"Now, an example of this cis and trans orientation of geometric isomers are malic acid,"},{"Start":"07:41.135 ","End":"07:42.720","Text":"also known as maleate."},{"Start":"07:42.720 ","End":"07:44.405","Text":"This is the cis isomer."},{"Start":"07:44.405 ","End":"07:45.575","Text":"If you look here,"},{"Start":"07:45.575 ","End":"07:49.835","Text":"the pink side chain substituent groups, the COOH,"},{"Start":"07:49.835 ","End":"07:56.990","Text":"are on the same side versus fumaric acid, which is the trans."},{"Start":"07:56.990 ","End":"07:59.335","Text":"You see it\u0027s still 2 carbons,"},{"Start":"07:59.335 ","End":"08:01.035","Text":"1 hydrogen and COOH."},{"Start":"08:01.035 ","End":"08:03.020","Text":"But 1 COOH on the bottom, 1 is on the top,"},{"Start":"08:03.020 ","End":"08:05.570","Text":"the pink groups are on different sides."},{"Start":"08:05.570 ","End":"08:10.100","Text":"These are trans, so fumaric where the functional groups on opposite sides"},{"Start":"08:10.100 ","End":"08:16.520","Text":"versus malic acid where it is on the same side of the double bond."},{"Start":"08:16.520 ","End":"08:19.550","Text":"Each is a well-defined compound that can be separated from the"},{"Start":"08:19.550 ","End":"08:23.300","Text":"other and each has its own unique chemical properties."},{"Start":"08:23.300 ","End":"08:26.540","Text":"The second type of isomers are chiral center."},{"Start":"08:26.540 ","End":"08:30.620","Text":"This is a stereoisomer that has 4 different substitute bonded"},{"Start":"08:30.620 ","End":"08:35.165","Text":"to a tetrahedral carbon atom that can be arranged in 2 different manners in space,"},{"Start":"08:35.165 ","End":"08:37.330","Text":"as we explained before."},{"Start":"08:37.330 ","End":"08:41.690","Text":"It has 2 different configurations resulting in 2 stereoisomers that have"},{"Start":"08:41.690 ","End":"08:44.060","Text":"similar or identical chemical properties but"},{"Start":"08:44.060 ","End":"08:48.139","Text":"differ in certain physical and biological properties."},{"Start":"08:48.139 ","End":"08:51.110","Text":"Tetrahedral carbon means 4,"},{"Start":"08:51.110 ","End":"08:55.220","Text":"and this originates from the Greek word Tettares, meaning 4."},{"Start":"08:55.220 ","End":"08:57.320","Text":"If you think of the classic video game,"},{"Start":"08:57.320 ","End":"09:00.570","Text":"Tetris, it is based on part on this Greek root."},{"Start":"09:00.570 ","End":"09:03.260","Text":"It was like the orientation of different things,"},{"Start":"09:03.260 ","End":"09:06.770","Text":"how they fit is really significant on how to do things"},{"Start":"09:06.770 ","End":"09:10.925","Text":"in and not all of these things are the same or mirror images."},{"Start":"09:10.925 ","End":"09:13.615","Text":"These are asymmetrical."},{"Start":"09:13.615 ","End":"09:18.735","Text":"A molecule with only one chiral carbon can have 2 stereoisomers."},{"Start":"09:18.735 ","End":"09:22.640","Text":"When 2 or more chiral carbons are present."},{"Start":"09:22.640 ","End":"09:26.115","Text":"When you have n number of chiral carbons,"},{"Start":"09:26.115 ","End":"09:32.180","Text":"the calculation of how many stereoisomers exists is based on 2^n stereoisomers,"},{"Start":"09:32.180 ","End":"09:36.005","Text":"meaning that the more carbons you have chiral carbons,"},{"Start":"09:36.005 ","End":"09:41.505","Text":"the more orientations they can have and each one has 2 orientations."},{"Start":"09:41.505 ","End":"09:47.150","Text":"We had completed Part 1 and we should be able to define stereochemistry, stereoisomers,"},{"Start":"09:47.150 ","End":"09:49.505","Text":"describe and name the different types of isomers,"},{"Start":"09:49.505 ","End":"09:51.935","Text":"understand the concept of geometric isomers,"},{"Start":"09:51.935 ","End":"09:53.315","Text":"and define a chiral center."},{"Start":"09:53.315 ","End":"09:57.220","Text":"We had covered 2 types of isomers and we\u0027re going to continue to"},{"Start":"09:57.220 ","End":"10:02.090","Text":"complete the 4 types of isomers in Part 2."}],"ID":27096},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Three Dimensional Structure - Configuration and Conformation of biomolecules Part 2","Duration":"6m 57s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26180,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.994","Text":"Welcome back to 3-dimensional structure,"},{"Start":"00:02.994 ","End":"00:04.900","Text":"talking about configuration and conformation of"},{"Start":"00:04.900 ","End":"00:08.365","Text":"biomolecules Part II within Chemical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:08.365 ","End":"00:12.460","Text":"In this part, we will describe and name different types of isomers and"},{"Start":"00:12.460 ","End":"00:17.380","Text":"explain the significance of configuration and conformation of biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:17.380 ","End":"00:21.385","Text":"To continue with the different types of isomers,"},{"Start":"00:21.385 ","End":"00:23.740","Text":"we covered 2 already,"},{"Start":"00:23.740 ","End":"00:25.270","Text":"we had geometric isomers,"},{"Start":"00:25.270 ","End":"00:27.205","Text":"and a chiral center,"},{"Start":"00:27.205 ","End":"00:29.647","Text":"those isomers as well."},{"Start":"00:29.647 ","End":"00:32.885","Text":"2-bromobutane stereoisomers, and you have 1 image,"},{"Start":"00:32.885 ","End":"00:35.470","Text":"and if you put a mirror, it is exactly the same."},{"Start":"00:35.470 ","End":"00:39.635","Text":"You have this substituting group on the second molecule,"},{"Start":"00:39.635 ","End":"00:43.050","Text":"it is on the upward bond,"},{"Start":"00:43.050 ","End":"00:49.730","Text":"and everything else is exactly the same when you mirror these 2 images."},{"Start":"00:49.730 ","End":"00:54.485","Text":"These have nearly identical chemical reactivities, these 2,"},{"Start":"00:54.485 ","End":"00:56.390","Text":"yet they differ in some physical properties,"},{"Start":"00:56.390 ","End":"00:59.615","Text":"and Louis Pasteur had observed this in 1843,"},{"Start":"00:59.615 ","End":"01:04.535","Text":"when he looked at the interaction of 2 such enantiomers,"},{"Start":"01:04.535 ","End":"01:08.660","Text":"and in the plane where he reflected light,"},{"Start":"01:08.660 ","End":"01:11.705","Text":"he found that polarized light differs."},{"Start":"01:11.705 ","End":"01:15.095","Text":"Meaning the light rotated reflect differently,"},{"Start":"01:15.095 ","End":"01:20.930","Text":"when he was shining lights into these 2 different stereoisomers,"},{"Start":"01:20.930 ","End":"01:25.000","Text":"how the light reflected and broke was different."},{"Start":"01:25.000 ","End":"01:28.069","Text":"As stated, these have nearly identical chemical reactivities,"},{"Start":"01:28.069 ","End":"01:30.455","Text":"but they differ in some physical properties."},{"Start":"01:30.455 ","End":"01:34.575","Text":"The 4th group of isomers is diastereomers."},{"Start":"01:34.575 ","End":"01:37.700","Text":"These are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other,"},{"Start":"01:37.700 ","End":"01:39.755","Text":"yet they look like they could be."},{"Start":"01:39.755 ","End":"01:43.805","Text":"When looking here at these diastereomers,"},{"Start":"01:43.805 ","End":"01:45.740","Text":"what we\u0027re seeing is that yes,"},{"Start":"01:45.740 ","End":"01:48.785","Text":"the substituent group is still on the second molecule,"},{"Start":"01:48.785 ","End":"01:51.515","Text":"and it is an upward bond,"},{"Start":"01:51.515 ","End":"01:52.805","Text":"but if you\u0027re looking here,"},{"Start":"01:52.805 ","End":"01:59.050","Text":"it seems like this second carbon is in front while this second carbon is in back."},{"Start":"01:59.050 ","End":"02:04.415","Text":"The 3D orientation, this one is sticking out forward towards us,"},{"Start":"02:04.415 ","End":"02:07.335","Text":"and this one is paused back."},{"Start":"02:07.335 ","End":"02:11.360","Text":"Therefore, these are not mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"02:11.360 ","End":"02:15.320","Text":"Just to make it clear, we have mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"02:15.320 ","End":"02:19.610","Text":"The orientation of each one of these molecules is"},{"Start":"02:19.610 ","End":"02:24.195","Text":"exactly the same when looking from this to this in a mirror."},{"Start":"02:24.195 ","End":"02:26.270","Text":"Whereas looking at diastereomers,"},{"Start":"02:26.270 ","End":"02:27.740","Text":"these are not mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"02:27.740 ","End":"02:29.060","Text":"They look very much alike,"},{"Start":"02:29.060 ","End":"02:31.010","Text":"but there is something different,"},{"Start":"02:31.010 ","End":"02:35.525","Text":"and this is upfront while this is to the back."},{"Start":"02:35.525 ","End":"02:38.225","Text":"The 4 different types of isomers."},{"Start":"02:38.225 ","End":"02:40.940","Text":"We have geometric isomers or cis-trans isomers,"},{"Start":"02:40.940 ","End":"02:42.170","Text":"which differ in the arrangement of"},{"Start":"02:42.170 ","End":"02:45.230","Text":"their substituent groups with regard to their double bonds."},{"Start":"02:45.230 ","End":"02:48.725","Text":"We gave the example of the maleic acid and fumaric acid,"},{"Start":"02:48.725 ","End":"02:54.655","Text":"where we had the functional groups either on the same side or on the opposite side."},{"Start":"02:54.655 ","End":"02:57.020","Text":"Next, we then have chiral centers."},{"Start":"02:57.020 ","End":"03:06.180","Text":"This is a stereoisomer"},{"Start":"03:06.180 ","End":"03:08.870","Text":"that has 4 different substituents bonded to"},{"Start":"03:08.870 ","End":"03:13.370","Text":"a tetrahedral carbon atom that can be arranged in 2 different manners in space."},{"Start":"03:13.370 ","End":"03:15.490","Text":"But see you say that really quickly."},{"Start":"03:15.490 ","End":"03:19.250","Text":"It has 2 different configurations resulting in 2 stereoisomers that have"},{"Start":"03:19.250 ","End":"03:21.800","Text":"similar or identical chemical properties yet"},{"Start":"03:21.800 ","End":"03:24.670","Text":"they can differ in certain physical and biological properties."},{"Start":"03:24.670 ","End":"03:27.635","Text":"If you remember, we mentioned this can have the orientation of R and"},{"Start":"03:27.635 ","End":"03:31.190","Text":"S. Third, we have enantiomers."},{"Start":"03:31.190 ","End":"03:34.265","Text":"These are stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"03:34.265 ","End":"03:36.785","Text":"Enantiomers, as we see here,"},{"Start":"03:36.785 ","End":"03:39.260","Text":"these are mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"03:39.260 ","End":"03:43.270","Text":"These 2 are enantiomers."},{"Start":"03:43.270 ","End":"03:46.255","Text":"Then you have diastereomers."},{"Start":"03:46.255 ","End":"03:49.280","Text":"These are stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"03:49.280 ","End":"03:51.620","Text":"These will be the diastereomers."},{"Start":"03:51.620 ","End":"03:54.780","Text":"You have enantiomers,"},{"Start":"03:54.780 ","End":"03:57.690","Text":"and I like thinking that there\u0027s 2 n\u0027s,"},{"Start":"03:57.690 ","End":"04:00.530","Text":"e and a, and enantiomers,"},{"Start":"04:00.530 ","End":"04:01.730","Text":"but these are mirror images."},{"Start":"04:01.730 ","End":"04:03.960","Text":"I\u0027m looking for similarities, just ways to remember thing,"},{"Start":"04:03.960 ","End":"04:06.410","Text":"and then you have diastereomers,"},{"Start":"04:06.410 ","End":"04:08.990","Text":"di as in 2."},{"Start":"04:08.990 ","End":"04:13.220","Text":"These are 2 different not mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"04:13.220 ","End":"04:15.140","Text":"Enantiomers mirror images."},{"Start":"04:15.140 ","End":"04:18.885","Text":"Diastereomers not mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"04:18.885 ","End":"04:22.760","Text":"From configuration, we\u0027re now going to move to confirmation."},{"Start":"04:22.760 ","End":"04:26.120","Text":"Molecular conformation is the spatial arrangement of"},{"Start":"04:26.120 ","End":"04:29.465","Text":"substituent groups that without breaking any bonds,"},{"Start":"04:29.465 ","End":"04:31.880","Text":"are free to assume different positions in space."},{"Start":"04:31.880 ","End":"04:33.230","Text":"If we look here,"},{"Start":"04:33.230 ","End":"04:35.810","Text":"this is exactly the same with regards to"},{"Start":"04:35.810 ","End":"04:39.020","Text":"the bond and the arrangement of the substituent groups."},{"Start":"04:39.020 ","End":"04:45.965","Text":"Yet here, these groups have been pushed down into an angle."},{"Start":"04:45.965 ","End":"04:48.440","Text":"The confirmation is different though"},{"Start":"04:48.440 ","End":"04:54.305","Text":"the configuration where they\u0027re bonded is basically the same."},{"Start":"04:54.305 ","End":"04:56.505","Text":"Here\u0027s another example to visualize."},{"Start":"04:56.505 ","End":"04:58.828","Text":"Here you have this molecule,"},{"Start":"04:58.828 ","End":"05:02.030","Text":"though are the same, but there was a rotation on this bond,"},{"Start":"05:02.030 ","End":"05:06.100","Text":"and what happened is that this CH_3 move"},{"Start":"05:06.100 ","End":"05:12.050","Text":"about 60 degrees to the right clockwise and you have now this conformation,"},{"Start":"05:12.050 ","End":"05:14.960","Text":"which is different than this conformation."},{"Start":"05:14.960 ","End":"05:21.500","Text":"This is something that can happen due to the freedom to rotate about single ones."},{"Start":"05:21.500 ","End":"05:23.390","Text":"Since there is a single bond,"},{"Start":"05:23.390 ","End":"05:25.325","Text":"these things can rotate."},{"Start":"05:25.325 ","End":"05:29.825","Text":"Confirmation thus is distinct from configuration."},{"Start":"05:29.825 ","End":"05:33.140","Text":"In other words, conformation is the set of possible shapes"},{"Start":"05:33.140 ","End":"05:37.265","Text":"a molecule can have by means of rotation about single bonds only."},{"Start":"05:37.265 ","End":"05:41.420","Text":"Configuration is the relative position of the atoms in a molecule that can be"},{"Start":"05:41.420 ","End":"05:45.920","Text":"changed exclusively by cleaving and forming new chemical bonds."},{"Start":"05:45.920 ","End":"05:47.935","Text":"Here it\u0027s a single bond."},{"Start":"05:47.935 ","End":"05:49.370","Text":"It allows for rotation,"},{"Start":"05:49.370 ","End":"05:52.250","Text":"and therefore you have a different conformation,"},{"Start":"05:52.250 ","End":"05:53.705","Text":"but this is the same."},{"Start":"05:53.705 ","End":"05:56.195","Text":"Whereas if you\u0027re looking here this is in trans,"},{"Start":"05:56.195 ","End":"05:57.830","Text":"you can\u0027t just rotate,"},{"Start":"05:57.830 ","End":"05:59.130","Text":"there\u0027s a double bond here."},{"Start":"05:59.130 ","End":"06:01.985","Text":"You can\u0027t just rotate this to form this."},{"Start":"06:01.985 ","End":"06:08.480","Text":"You\u0027d have to break one of the bonds in order to turn maleic acid into fumaric acid."},{"Start":"06:08.480 ","End":"06:11.475","Text":"Again, conformational isomers."},{"Start":"06:11.475 ","End":"06:16.535","Text":"Conformers are 2 molecules with the same configuration but different conformation."},{"Start":"06:16.535 ","End":"06:20.660","Text":"Conformational isomers are temporarily different shapes of the same molecule and"},{"Start":"06:20.660 ","End":"06:25.055","Text":"for this reason are not classified as isomers by some."},{"Start":"06:25.055 ","End":"06:29.194","Text":"With this, we conclude Part II of 3-dimensional structure,"},{"Start":"06:29.194 ","End":"06:31.610","Text":"talking about configuration and conformation of biomolecules and"},{"Start":"06:31.610 ","End":"06:34.580","Text":"you should be able to describe and name different types of isomers,"},{"Start":"06:34.580 ","End":"06:36.700","Text":"all 4 of them,"},{"Start":"06:36.700 ","End":"06:41.225","Text":"and explain the significance of configuration and conformation of biomolecules."},{"Start":"06:41.225 ","End":"06:44.930","Text":"Stepping out, this entire lesson,"},{"Start":"06:44.930 ","End":"06:49.355","Text":"we now should be able to define stereochemistry and stereoisomers,"},{"Start":"06:49.355 ","End":"06:51.620","Text":"describe and name the different types of isomers,"},{"Start":"06:51.620 ","End":"06:55.130","Text":"and explain the significance of configuration and confirmation of biomolecules."},{"Start":"06:55.130 ","End":"06:57.840","Text":"I\u0027ll see you in the exercises."}],"ID":27097},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 10","Duration":"1m 49s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26182,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:05.040","Text":"Hey there. We are going to test your knowledge"},{"Start":"00:05.040 ","End":"00:09.885","Text":"on configuration and conformation of biomolecules within chemical foundation."},{"Start":"00:09.885 ","End":"00:14.025","Text":"A lot of these terms are teeth breakers."},{"Start":"00:14.025 ","End":"00:19.350","Text":"Don\u0027t worry about the pronunciation but try to focus on understanding."},{"Start":"00:19.350 ","End":"00:22.785","Text":"What is stereochemistry and what are stereoisomers?"},{"Start":"00:22.785 ","End":"00:25.410","Text":"Stereochemistry and stereoisomers,"},{"Start":"00:25.410 ","End":"00:27.870","Text":"2 terms related to each other."},{"Start":"00:27.870 ","End":"00:29.640","Text":"Let\u0027s start with stereochemistry."},{"Start":"00:29.640 ","End":"00:31.665","Text":"It is the arrangement of molecules,"},{"Start":"00:31.665 ","End":"00:33.375","Text":"atoms in 3-dimensional space."},{"Start":"00:33.375 ","End":"00:35.655","Text":"It is central to its function."},{"Start":"00:35.655 ","End":"00:40.230","Text":"The way molecules are arranged in space,"},{"Start":"00:40.230 ","End":"00:43.400","Text":"3-dimensional arrangement, orientation,"},{"Start":"00:43.400 ","End":"00:48.490","Text":"organization is stereochemistry and it is central to its function."},{"Start":"00:48.490 ","End":"00:52.040","Text":"We talked about with enzyme coming in binding"},{"Start":"00:52.040 ","End":"00:57.545","Text":"the needs stereo specificity they will bind to a specific molecule."},{"Start":"00:57.545 ","End":"01:01.010","Text":"Stereoisomers are carbon-containing compounds,"},{"Start":"01:01.010 ","End":"01:02.900","Text":"molecules with the same chemical bonds and"},{"Start":"01:02.900 ","End":"01:06.365","Text":"same chemical formula, but different configuration."},{"Start":"01:06.365 ","End":"01:12.960","Text":"Though you may have the same carbon and whatever it will be H and O and N,"},{"Start":"01:13.360 ","End":"01:16.340","Text":"there can be a different orientation,"},{"Start":"01:16.340 ","End":"01:21.615","Text":"different configuration where actually these bonds are different."},{"Start":"01:21.615 ","End":"01:26.705","Text":"Molecules that have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms but differ in"},{"Start":"01:26.705 ","End":"01:32.050","Text":"the 3-dimensional orientation of their atoms in space are stereoisomers."},{"Start":"01:32.050 ","End":"01:34.970","Text":"Stereochemistry, the arrangement of molecules,"},{"Start":"01:34.970 ","End":"01:36.700","Text":"atoms in 3-dimensional space,"},{"Start":"01:36.700 ","End":"01:39.905","Text":"and stereoisomers are carbon-containing compounds"},{"Start":"01:39.905 ","End":"01:43.640","Text":"where they have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms,"},{"Start":"01:43.640 ","End":"01:49.980","Text":"but they differ in the 3-dimensional orientation of the atoms in space. Let\u0027s move on."}],"ID":27098},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 11","Duration":"2m 13s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26183,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.350 ","End":"00:04.500","Text":"Hey there. Welcome back to an exercise testing our knowledge on"},{"Start":"00:04.500 ","End":"00:08.820","Text":"configuration and conformation of biomolecules within chemical foundation."},{"Start":"00:08.820 ","End":"00:12.540","Text":"Part I, define geometric isomers,"},{"Start":"00:12.540 ","End":"00:15.720","Text":"also known as cis-trans isomers."},{"Start":"00:15.720 ","End":"00:18.810","Text":"Remember, cis is set of member like sisters, same,"},{"Start":"00:18.810 ","End":"00:20.406","Text":"similar, trans,"},{"Start":"00:20.406 ","End":"00:24.060","Text":"like transatlantic, different, across."},{"Start":"00:24.060 ","End":"00:28.440","Text":"Geometric isomers or cis-trans isomers differ in the arrangement of"},{"Start":"00:28.440 ","End":"00:36.945","Text":"their substituent groups,"},{"Start":"00:36.945 ","End":"00:39.206","Text":"their sub chains,"},{"Start":"00:39.206 ","End":"00:42.022","Text":"their functional group with regard to their double bonds."},{"Start":"00:42.022 ","End":"00:42.115","Text":"Again,"},{"Start":"00:42.115 ","End":"00:42.283","Text":"geometric isomers or cis-trans isomers"},{"Start":"00:42.283 ","End":"00:42.299","Text":"differ from the arrangement"},{"Start":"00:42.299 ","End":"00:42.300","Text":"of their substituent groups with regard to their double bonds."},{"Start":"00:42.300 ","End":"00:42.840","Text":"What this means?"},{"Start":"00:42.840 ","End":"00:43.880","Text":"They either have groups"},{"Start":"00:43.880 ","End":"00:45.770","Text":"on the same side of the double bond,"},{"Start":"00:45.770 ","End":"00:47.540","Text":"and therefore are called cis,"},{"Start":"00:47.540 ","End":"00:48.740","Text":"which in Latin means,"},{"Start":"00:48.740 ","End":"00:50.570","Text":"on this side,"},{"Start":"00:50.570 ","End":"00:54.410","Text":"or they have groups on opposite sides of the double bond,"},{"Start":"00:54.410 ","End":"00:59.580","Text":"in which case they are trans from the word trans in Latin, meaning, across."},{"Start":"00:59.580 ","End":"01:03.450","Text":"Geometric isomers or cis-trans isomers differ in the arrangement"},{"Start":"01:03.450 ","End":"01:07.855","Text":"of their substituent groups with regard to their non rotating double bonds."},{"Start":"01:07.855 ","End":"01:09.885","Text":"If we extend this further,"},{"Start":"01:09.885 ","End":"01:13.460","Text":"cis indicates that the functional groups are on the same side of the carbon chain,"},{"Start":"01:13.460 ","End":"01:18.010","Text":"and trans indicates that the functional groups are on opposing side of the carbon chain."},{"Start":"01:18.010 ","End":"01:23.795","Text":"Part II, Indicate which figure depicts a cis isomer and which a trans isomer."},{"Start":"01:23.795 ","End":"01:27.065","Text":"What did we say? Cis like sister, similar."},{"Start":"01:27.065 ","End":"01:29.240","Text":"I know it\u0027s not from the term sister,"},{"Start":"01:29.240 ","End":"01:34.185","Text":"it\u0027s from cis on the side, and trans across."},{"Start":"01:34.185 ","End":"01:36.195","Text":"Here you see,"},{"Start":"01:36.195 ","End":"01:42.185","Text":"2 red elements on one side and here you see them across."},{"Start":"01:42.185 ","End":"01:43.505","Text":"What does that mean?"},{"Start":"01:43.505 ","End":"01:47.255","Text":"Well, the answer means that cis in Latin means, on this side,"},{"Start":"01:47.255 ","End":"01:49.610","Text":"the red are both on this side,"},{"Start":"01:49.610 ","End":"01:51.560","Text":"whereas trans in Latin means, across,"},{"Start":"01:51.560 ","End":"01:54.545","Text":"it is across from each other."},{"Start":"01:54.545 ","End":"01:57.905","Text":"Cis and trans."},{"Start":"01:57.905 ","End":"02:01.640","Text":"Cis indicating functional groups on the same side of carbon chain,"},{"Start":"02:01.640 ","End":"02:06.125","Text":"trans indicating the functional groups are on opposing side of the carbon chain."},{"Start":"02:06.125 ","End":"02:13.980","Text":"Hopefully, this has been drilled in and we now know cis and trans within isomerism."}],"ID":27099},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 12","Duration":"2m 21s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26184,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.320","Text":"Welcome here in a test or knowledge on configuration and conformation"},{"Start":"00:04.320 ","End":"00:08.205","Text":"of biomolecules within chemical foundation and biochemistry."},{"Start":"00:08.205 ","End":"00:11.220","Text":"What type of isomers are these biomolecules?"},{"Start":"00:11.220 ","End":"00:12.705","Text":"We have an image,"},{"Start":"00:12.705 ","End":"00:15.194","Text":"and a mirror image."},{"Start":"00:15.194 ","End":"00:18.420","Text":"I remember there are 2 types of"},{"Start":"00:18.420 ","End":"00:22.740","Text":"isomers that either are mirror images of each other or not."},{"Start":"00:22.740 ","End":"00:25.305","Text":"There\u0027s 1 that\u0027s nN,"},{"Start":"00:25.305 ","End":"00:29.325","Text":"n1 that has di in a 2."},{"Start":"00:29.325 ","End":"00:33.230","Text":"NN, if I remember the 2 ns and that\u0027s how I remember it,"},{"Start":"00:33.230 ","End":"00:37.010","Text":"this may not work for you or you can think of EA, the 2 vowels."},{"Start":"00:37.010 ","End":"00:41.415","Text":"They are mirror images because they are similar."},{"Start":"00:41.415 ","End":"00:44.125","Text":"These are enantiomers,"},{"Start":"00:44.125 ","End":"00:48.065","Text":"stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"00:48.065 ","End":"00:50.360","Text":"Enantiomers."},{"Start":"00:50.360 ","End":"00:55.790","Text":"These have nearly identical chemical reactivities but different some physical properties."},{"Start":"00:55.790 ","End":"00:59.735","Text":"If we put these molecules in water and then shine a light,"},{"Start":"00:59.735 ","End":"01:02.540","Text":"how it would reflect would be a little bit different."},{"Start":"01:02.540 ","End":"01:06.155","Text":"The light may reflect if start doing from the top."},{"Start":"01:06.155 ","End":"01:10.190","Text":"Here, because the group on this side,"},{"Start":"01:10.190 ","End":"01:16.925","Text":"it may lead for more reflection to go in 1 direction."},{"Start":"01:16.925 ","End":"01:22.805","Text":"Whereas here, it may go further in another direction."},{"Start":"01:22.805 ","End":"01:26.210","Text":"Although they have nearly identical chemical reactivities,"},{"Start":"01:26.210 ","End":"01:28.375","Text":"the difference in physical properties."},{"Start":"01:28.375 ","End":"01:30.775","Text":"Here, as an example of 2,"},{"Start":"01:30.775 ","End":"01:33.440","Text":"which are not mirror images of each other."},{"Start":"01:33.440 ","End":"01:36.200","Text":"Just as a reminder, mirror images,"},{"Start":"01:36.200 ","End":"01:41.140","Text":"it needs to exactly be a mirror image so that this is up,"},{"Start":"01:41.140 ","End":"01:45.655","Text":"up, this is down, down."},{"Start":"01:45.655 ","End":"01:52.970","Text":"You have a substituent group and the same second molecule from external sides,"},{"Start":"01:52.970 ","End":"01:54.620","Text":"and it is also up,"},{"Start":"01:54.620 ","End":"01:57.150","Text":"and, this one\u0027s down."},{"Start":"01:57.150 ","End":"01:59.495","Text":"Then when you look at the rotation from front to back,"},{"Start":"01:59.495 ","End":"02:01.790","Text":"you see this one\u0027s in front,"},{"Start":"02:01.790 ","End":"02:03.230","Text":"this one is in back,"},{"Start":"02:03.230 ","End":"02:04.550","Text":"this one is in front,"},{"Start":"02:04.550 ","End":"02:06.125","Text":"and this one\u0027s in back."},{"Start":"02:06.125 ","End":"02:09.380","Text":"Then when you look at these ones which are not mirror images of each other,"},{"Start":"02:09.380 ","End":"02:11.480","Text":"it\u0027s very similar in the up and down."},{"Start":"02:11.480 ","End":"02:14.780","Text":"The difference is that this one is forward,"},{"Start":"02:14.780 ","End":"02:17.790","Text":"and this one is back."},{"Start":"02:18.440 ","End":"02:22.030","Text":"Thanks and let\u0027s move forward."}],"ID":27100},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Interactions between Biomolecules","Duration":"11m 48s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26185,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.805","Text":"Thanks for joining me for chemical foundation,"},{"Start":"00:02.805 ","End":"00:06.555","Text":"covering the topic of interactions between biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:06.555 ","End":"00:07.710","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:07.710 ","End":"00:10.710","Text":"you\u0027ll be able to define stereospecificity,"},{"Start":"00:10.710 ","End":"00:15.195","Text":"understand the significance of stereospecificity in biomolecular interactions,"},{"Start":"00:15.195 ","End":"00:17.850","Text":"and give examples of such interactions."},{"Start":"00:17.850 ","End":"00:21.480","Text":"Interactions between molecules are stereospecific."},{"Start":"00:21.480 ","End":"00:25.530","Text":"The fit between them must be stereochemically correct."},{"Start":"00:25.530 ","End":"00:27.600","Text":"Basically, this means that,"},{"Start":"00:27.600 ","End":"00:33.135","Text":"there needs to be specificity based on the stereochemistry,"},{"Start":"00:33.135 ","End":"00:36.225","Text":"which we covered in the previous section."},{"Start":"00:36.225 ","End":"00:39.810","Text":"The 3-dimensional structure of biomolecules,"},{"Start":"00:39.810 ","End":"00:42.560","Text":"the combination of configuration and conformation,"},{"Start":"00:42.560 ","End":"00:45.035","Text":"which we talked about in the previous section,"},{"Start":"00:45.035 ","End":"00:48.110","Text":"is critical in their biological interactions."},{"Start":"00:48.110 ","End":"00:52.550","Text":"Examples, enzyme and its substrate."},{"Start":"00:52.550 ","End":"00:57.200","Text":"You see here that the substrate is specific to an enzyme."},{"Start":"00:57.200 ","End":"01:01.385","Text":"It doesn\u0027t necessarily have to be 2 substrates that the enzyme is"},{"Start":"01:01.385 ","End":"01:03.830","Text":"connecting into a product but in"},{"Start":"01:03.830 ","End":"01:07.040","Text":"this case that\u0027s what we\u0027re seeing 2 substrates, 1 and 2,"},{"Start":"01:07.040 ","End":"01:11.780","Text":"pink and purple, that go into the active site of enzyme and it\u0027s a specific shape,"},{"Start":"01:11.780 ","End":"01:14.360","Text":"and you have the color that also defines"},{"Start":"01:14.360 ","End":"01:18.800","Text":"some molecular or chemical property"},{"Start":"01:18.800 ","End":"01:22.210","Text":"that makes it specific to where it sits in the enzyme."},{"Start":"01:22.210 ","End":"01:25.700","Text":"Another example is hormone and its receptor."},{"Start":"01:25.700 ","End":"01:29.930","Text":"As we see here, you have hormones that are released by secreting cell,"},{"Start":"01:29.930 ","End":"01:32.765","Text":"and then you have a target cell and a not target cell."},{"Start":"01:32.765 ","End":"01:35.870","Text":"The target cell will have receptors"},{"Start":"01:35.870 ","End":"01:40.340","Text":"that are specific to the stereochemistry of the hormone."},{"Start":"01:40.340 ","End":"01:43.580","Text":"The target cell will not have receptors that fit it and therefore,"},{"Start":"01:43.580 ","End":"01:47.240","Text":"there will not be binding of that hormone to this receptor"},{"Start":"01:47.240 ","End":"01:52.290","Text":"and that target cell will not be affected by this hormone."},{"Start":"01:52.420 ","End":"01:58.655","Text":"Stereospecificity, the ability to distinguish between stereoisomers."},{"Start":"01:58.655 ","End":"02:03.650","Text":"Basically molecules that have a specific shape that may be similar,"},{"Start":"02:03.650 ","End":"02:06.200","Text":"but maybe opposite of each other, opposing."},{"Start":"02:06.200 ","End":"02:08.960","Text":"This is a property of enzymes and other proteins and"},{"Start":"02:08.960 ","End":"02:12.260","Text":"a characteristic feature of biochemical interactions,"},{"Start":"02:12.260 ","End":"02:17.300","Text":"the specificity for a molecule and not another one."},{"Start":"02:17.300 ","End":"02:21.080","Text":"Another example, this is antigen and it\u0027s specific antibody."},{"Start":"02:21.080 ","End":"02:24.795","Text":"We didn\u0027t really talk about these yet in the sections,"},{"Start":"02:24.795 ","End":"02:27.040","Text":"but generally antibodies are specific."},{"Start":"02:27.040 ","End":"02:31.010","Text":"You hear about antibodies that are specific to a certain virus or a certain pathogen."},{"Start":"02:31.010 ","End":"02:35.510","Text":"They have a shape and there\u0027s a plethora of shapes for antibodies and specificity."},{"Start":"02:35.510 ","End":"02:39.670","Text":"Here\u0027s represented by shape on the cell, you have an orange,"},{"Start":"02:39.670 ","End":"02:42.510","Text":"square, pink,"},{"Start":"02:42.510 ","End":"02:45.325","Text":"purple triangle, and a green circle."},{"Start":"02:45.325 ","End":"02:48.530","Text":"There\u0027s a combination of shape and color."},{"Start":"02:48.530 ","End":"02:54.485","Text":"Again, this may represent stereoisomers somewhat of a different chemical property."},{"Start":"02:54.485 ","End":"03:01.820","Text":"You see that the antibodies only bind to a specific antigen."},{"Start":"03:01.820 ","End":"03:05.540","Text":"What you see here is the green antibody is binding to the green circle,"},{"Start":"03:05.540 ","End":"03:08.240","Text":"the yellow antibody is binding to the orange square,"},{"Start":"03:08.240 ","End":"03:10.043","Text":"and this pink,"},{"Start":"03:10.043 ","End":"03:14.360","Text":"purple antibody is binding to the triangle."},{"Start":"03:14.360 ","End":"03:17.750","Text":"The study of biomolecular stereochemistry is an important part"},{"Start":"03:17.750 ","End":"03:21.770","Text":"of modern research on cell structure and biochemical function."},{"Start":"03:21.770 ","End":"03:26.510","Text":"Because we need to understand what the specificity with"},{"Start":"03:26.510 ","End":"03:32.570","Text":"a stereochemistry is because that affects the biochemical functions."},{"Start":"03:32.570 ","End":"03:34.940","Text":"Chiral molecules are usually present in"},{"Start":"03:34.940 ","End":"03:37.490","Text":"only one of their chiral forms in living organisms."},{"Start":"03:37.490 ","End":"03:39.950","Text":"You generally will either have the R or the"},{"Start":"03:39.950 ","End":"03:44.390","Text":"S. Living cells produce only one chiral form of a biomolecule,"},{"Start":"03:44.390 ","End":"03:48.380","Text":"because the enzymes that synthesize that molecule are also chiral."},{"Start":"03:48.380 ","End":"03:50.930","Text":"We\u0027re going to have a reminder from the previous section as to"},{"Start":"03:50.930 ","End":"03:54.734","Text":"chiral coming from the word handedness."},{"Start":"03:54.734 ","End":"03:57.545","Text":"What we\u0027re seeing here is that generally,"},{"Start":"03:57.545 ","End":"04:05.100","Text":"a specific cell will only have 1 of the 2 chiral forms,"},{"Start":"04:05.100 ","End":"04:08.615","Text":"either at the R or the S. That is,"},{"Start":"04:08.615 ","End":"04:12.830","Text":"a result of enzymes that synthesize that molecule which are also chiral."},{"Start":"04:12.830 ","End":"04:14.975","Text":"They are also specific."},{"Start":"04:14.975 ","End":"04:17.180","Text":"Let\u0027s go through that again,"},{"Start":"04:17.180 ","End":"04:20.120","Text":"a reminder from our previous section. Chiral center."},{"Start":"04:20.120 ","End":"04:23.630","Text":"This is a stereoisomer that has 4 different substituents"},{"Start":"04:23.630 ","End":"04:27.680","Text":"bonded to tetrahedral carbon atom. I know that\u0027s a mouthful."},{"Start":"04:27.680 ","End":"04:30.050","Text":"If you remember 4 different substituents,"},{"Start":"04:30.050 ","End":"04:36.445","Text":"these are basically side groups or functional groups,"},{"Start":"04:36.445 ","End":"04:39.320","Text":"and they are bonded to a tetrahedral,"},{"Start":"04:39.320 ","End":"04:42.275","Text":"which means 4 carbon atom."},{"Start":"04:42.275 ","End":"04:48.920","Text":"A carbon atom that can bind 4 and it actually does bind 4 different side groups,"},{"Start":"04:48.920 ","End":"04:50.525","Text":"as represented by the colors here,"},{"Start":"04:50.525 ","End":"04:52.175","Text":"yellow, green, purple, and red."},{"Start":"04:52.175 ","End":"04:57.170","Text":"They\u0027re all different. A chiral center is a stereoisomer that has"},{"Start":"04:57.170 ","End":"04:58.820","Text":"4 different groups bonded to"},{"Start":"04:58.820 ","End":"05:03.695","Text":"a tetrahedral carbon atom that can be arranged in 2 different manners in space."},{"Start":"05:03.695 ","End":"05:06.125","Text":"It has 2 different configurations resulting in"},{"Start":"05:06.125 ","End":"05:10.895","Text":"2 stereoisomers that have similar or identical chemical properties,"},{"Start":"05:10.895 ","End":"05:14.075","Text":"but differ in certain physical and biological properties."},{"Start":"05:14.075 ","End":"05:17.464","Text":"Though they have the same exact chemical makeup,"},{"Start":"05:17.464 ","End":"05:20.120","Text":"because of the orientation a little bit"},{"Start":"05:20.120 ","End":"05:24.080","Text":"different and this affects the physical and biological properties."},{"Start":"05:24.080 ","End":"05:28.315","Text":"We talked about the idea with Louis Pasteur,"},{"Start":"05:28.315 ","End":"05:33.350","Text":"looking at 2 molecules them being stereoisomers,"},{"Start":"05:33.350 ","End":"05:34.490","Text":"having light shone on them,"},{"Start":"05:34.490 ","End":"05:37.010","Text":"the refraction of the light is different."},{"Start":"05:37.010 ","End":"05:39.950","Text":"We explain stereospecificity."},{"Start":"05:39.950 ","End":"05:42.170","Text":"Let\u0027s go into it a little bit deeper."},{"Start":"05:42.170 ","End":"05:44.420","Text":"It\u0027s a property of enzymes and other proteins and"},{"Start":"05:44.420 ","End":"05:48.095","Text":"a characteristic feature of biochemical interactions."},{"Start":"05:48.095 ","End":"05:54.275","Text":"If the binding site on a protein is complimentary to 1 isomer of a chiral compound,"},{"Start":"05:54.275 ","End":"05:58.890","Text":"it will not be complimentary to the other isomer."},{"Start":"05:59.630 ","End":"06:02.174","Text":"Let\u0027s visualize this."},{"Start":"06:02.174 ","End":"06:07.460","Text":"Stereospecificity in organic synthesis or stereospecific reaction,"},{"Start":"06:07.460 ","End":"06:09.470","Text":"is where the stereochemistry of"},{"Start":"06:09.470 ","End":"06:15.770","Text":"the starting material determines the stereochemistry of the product."},{"Start":"06:15.770 ","End":"06:22.010","Text":"Because these fit in a specific manner and to the active site,"},{"Start":"06:22.010 ","End":"06:24.395","Text":"1 fits here, 2 fits here,"},{"Start":"06:24.395 ","End":"06:26.885","Text":"when they fit this way and they come together,"},{"Start":"06:26.885 ","End":"06:28.715","Text":"this is what results."},{"Start":"06:28.715 ","End":"06:33.995","Text":"If you have these 2, again, similar situation."},{"Start":"06:33.995 ","End":"06:35.945","Text":"Let me go back."},{"Start":"06:35.945 ","End":"06:41.035","Text":"Which stereoisomer is used of 2 stereoisomers?"},{"Start":"06:41.035 ","End":"06:43.685","Text":"To find what the product will be,"},{"Start":"06:43.685 ","End":"06:44.870","Text":"meaning if you have,"},{"Start":"06:44.870 ","End":"06:47.494","Text":"like before we said R and S,"},{"Start":"06:47.494 ","End":"06:49.985","Text":"which one is recognized,"},{"Start":"06:49.985 ","End":"06:52.310","Text":"which one is used,"},{"Start":"06:52.310 ","End":"06:54.604","Text":"utilized for the process,"},{"Start":"06:54.604 ","End":"06:57.410","Text":"defines what the product will be."},{"Start":"06:57.410 ","End":"07:00.740","Text":"Defining a stereospecific reaction is where the stereochemistry of"},{"Start":"07:00.740 ","End":"07:04.820","Text":"the starting material determines the stereochemistry of the product."},{"Start":"07:04.820 ","End":"07:10.010","Text":"Basically, it is a reaction in which the stereochemistry of"},{"Start":"07:10.010 ","End":"07:12.500","Text":"the reactant completely determines"},{"Start":"07:12.500 ","End":"07:16.145","Text":"the stereochemistry of the product without any other option."},{"Start":"07:16.145 ","End":"07:20.555","Text":"There is also something called stereoselective."},{"Start":"07:20.555 ","End":"07:26.465","Text":"Cases like this, stereoselectivity or a stereoselective reaction,"},{"Start":"07:26.465 ","End":"07:30.095","Text":"is a reaction in which there is a choice of pathway,"},{"Start":"07:30.095 ","End":"07:33.050","Text":"but the product stereoisomer is formed due to"},{"Start":"07:33.050 ","End":"07:36.845","Text":"its reaction pathway being more favorable than the others available."},{"Start":"07:36.845 ","End":"07:39.720","Text":"If we look here,"},{"Start":"07:39.790 ","End":"07:45.625","Text":"using the cyst element may result in a cyst product."},{"Start":"07:45.625 ","End":"07:49.835","Text":"Stereospecific reaction is reaction in which the stereochemistry of the reactant"},{"Start":"07:49.835 ","End":"07:54.935","Text":"completely determines the stereochemistry of the product without any other option."},{"Start":"07:54.935 ","End":"08:01.850","Text":"Again, what you have here defines what will end up here."},{"Start":"08:01.850 ","End":"08:06.590","Text":"If you have 2 that don\u0027t fit the same way,"},{"Start":"08:06.590 ","End":"08:11.540","Text":"it may not remain in this product or may not remain in a product at all."},{"Start":"08:11.540 ","End":"08:13.925","Text":"Now, there\u0027s stereoselective."},{"Start":"08:13.925 ","End":"08:18.680","Text":"A stereoselective reaction is a reaction in which there is a choice of pathway,"},{"Start":"08:18.680 ","End":"08:21.860","Text":"but the product stereoisomer is formed due to"},{"Start":"08:21.860 ","End":"08:27.065","Text":"its reaction pathway being more favorable than others available."},{"Start":"08:27.065 ","End":"08:31.310","Text":"Stereoselective reaction, it\u0027s not that there is"},{"Start":"08:31.310 ","End":"08:35.715","Text":"no other choice only if 1 and 2 come, will they bind."},{"Start":"08:35.715 ","End":"08:38.955","Text":"But there may be 2 and maybe a 2 prime."},{"Start":"08:38.955 ","End":"08:40.695","Text":"They\u0027re somewhat similar."},{"Start":"08:40.695 ","End":"08:46.430","Text":"Reaction in this case is where there\u0027s a choice of a path but because if it takes 2\u0027,"},{"Start":"08:46.430 ","End":"08:51.155","Text":"the product stereoisomer is different than this."},{"Start":"08:51.155 ","End":"08:55.195","Text":"It will be a little bit different from this product."},{"Start":"08:55.195 ","End":"09:00.815","Text":"That is due to the reaction pathway being a little different between the 2,"},{"Start":"09:00.815 ","End":"09:05.905","Text":"yet it generally will be more favorable than the others available."},{"Start":"09:05.905 ","End":"09:08.270","Text":"What do I mean by that? The generally,"},{"Start":"09:08.270 ","End":"09:09.950","Text":"even if it can bind 2\u0027,"},{"Start":"09:09.950 ","End":"09:11.780","Text":"there will be a more favorable."},{"Start":"09:11.780 ","End":"09:17.250","Text":"It will generally favor this one because it binds better than 2\u0027."},{"Start":"09:17.250 ","End":"09:22.030","Text":"So you\u0027ll see more of this product rather than the product of 2\u0027."},{"Start":"09:22.030 ","End":"09:25.280","Text":"Going back to the idea of if the binding set on"},{"Start":"09:25.280 ","End":"09:28.291","Text":"a protein is complementary to 1 isomer of a chiral compound."},{"Start":"09:28.291 ","End":"09:30.320","Text":"It will not be complimentary to"},{"Start":"09:30.320 ","End":"09:34.412","Text":"the other isomer in the cases of enzymes and their substrate."},{"Start":"09:34.412 ","End":"09:35.810","Text":"Looking at the figure on the left,"},{"Start":"09:35.810 ","End":"09:38.000","Text":"what this means is that the pink,"},{"Start":"09:38.000 ","End":"09:43.100","Text":"even upon rotation, won\u0027t be exactly like the purple."},{"Start":"09:43.100 ","End":"09:47.135","Text":"Therefore, it will only fit on the left section."},{"Start":"09:47.135 ","End":"09:50.510","Text":"It\u0027ll only fit here, of the enzyme."},{"Start":"09:50.510 ","End":"09:52.580","Text":"Or looking at the figure on the right."},{"Start":"09:52.580 ","End":"09:56.735","Text":"If you flip these bonded hexagons,"},{"Start":"09:56.735 ","End":"09:59.885","Text":"these bonded molecules, they won\u0027t fit right."},{"Start":"09:59.885 ","End":"10:02.495","Text":"Even though in this illustration seem that they would,"},{"Start":"10:02.495 ","End":"10:08.570","Text":"but imagine the color defining some different molecule, some different property."},{"Start":"10:08.570 ","End":"10:10.690","Text":"Though they may have the same amount of elements,"},{"Start":"10:10.690 ","End":"10:13.940","Text":"these may differ between the 2 and thus only fit in"},{"Start":"10:13.940 ","End":"10:17.720","Text":"1 orientation with this one only going here,"},{"Start":"10:17.720 ","End":"10:19.070","Text":"and the yellow only going here,"},{"Start":"10:19.070 ","End":"10:22.310","Text":"and if it flips, it will not bind."},{"Start":"10:22.310 ","End":"10:24.890","Text":"It recognize this is bond,"},{"Start":"10:24.890 ","End":"10:28.790","Text":"and therefore it can break this bond and separate into the products."},{"Start":"10:28.790 ","End":"10:32.570","Text":"But if it doesn\u0027t fit correctly this way,"},{"Start":"10:32.570 ","End":"10:34.310","Text":"if it just fits where"},{"Start":"10:34.310 ","End":"10:39.425","Text":"even this hexagon was turned a little bit and what you would have is that,"},{"Start":"10:39.425 ","End":"10:43.095","Text":"in essence, the yellow would fit here,"},{"Start":"10:43.095 ","End":"10:47.270","Text":"and the salmon color hexagon would fit here."},{"Start":"10:47.270 ","End":"10:50.150","Text":"There wouldn\u0027t be this process where"},{"Start":"10:50.150 ","End":"10:54.005","Text":"the enzyme substrate complex is formed and the bond breaks under stress,"},{"Start":"10:54.005 ","End":"10:56.165","Text":"because only the yellow came in."},{"Start":"10:56.165 ","End":"11:00.845","Text":"Until you have these both bound in this form,"},{"Start":"11:00.845 ","End":"11:05.210","Text":"that\u0027s when the process will occur and you will get the products. This is specific."},{"Start":"11:05.210 ","End":"11:07.640","Text":"Again, even though it seems like"},{"Start":"11:07.640 ","End":"11:10.040","Text":"these are exactly the same shapes, there\u0027s different colors."},{"Start":"11:10.040 ","End":"11:15.230","Text":"That just represents a different biochemical property and that is again,"},{"Start":"11:15.230 ","End":"11:19.190","Text":"the stereochemistry, the specific orientation."},{"Start":"11:19.190 ","End":"11:22.100","Text":"The salmon, if it sits here in the yellow here,"},{"Start":"11:22.100 ","End":"11:23.930","Text":"it won\u0027t be recognized."},{"Start":"11:23.930 ","End":"11:29.395","Text":"Maybe the way the bond is setup is different and this breakage won\u0027t occur."},{"Start":"11:29.395 ","End":"11:32.420","Text":"With that, we completed the sections of interactions"},{"Start":"11:32.420 ","End":"11:35.479","Text":"between biomolecules within chemical foundation,"},{"Start":"11:35.479 ","End":"11:38.420","Text":"and we learned to define stereospecificity,"},{"Start":"11:38.420 ","End":"11:42.595","Text":"understand the significance of stereospecificity in biomolecular interactions,"},{"Start":"11:42.595 ","End":"11:45.395","Text":"and we gave examples of such interactions."},{"Start":"11:45.395 ","End":"11:49.440","Text":"Thanks and we\u0027ll see you back."}],"ID":27101},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 13","Duration":"1m 20s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26186,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.275","Text":"Welcome to an exercise within"},{"Start":"00:02.275 ","End":"00:06.520","Text":"chemical foundation covering interactions between biomolecules."},{"Start":"00:06.520 ","End":"00:11.800","Text":"What term defines the importance of the configuration and"},{"Start":"00:11.800 ","End":"00:18.150","Text":"conformation to chemical interactions between biomolecules and explains this?"},{"Start":"00:18.150 ","End":"00:20.980","Text":"For the term we talked about that defines both configuration"},{"Start":"00:20.980 ","End":"00:24.645","Text":"and conformation is stereospecificity."},{"Start":"00:24.645 ","End":"00:28.500","Text":"Interactions between molecules are stereospecific."},{"Start":"00:28.500 ","End":"00:32.050","Text":"The fit between them must be stereochemically correct,"},{"Start":"00:32.050 ","End":"00:37.960","Text":"meaning not only that it is the same configuration,"},{"Start":"00:37.960 ","End":"00:40.230","Text":"meaning the same molecule is bound,"},{"Start":"00:40.230 ","End":"00:42.980","Text":"it\u0027s also the same conformation."},{"Start":"00:42.980 ","End":"00:46.040","Text":"Now, the 3-dimensional structure of biomolecules,"},{"Start":"00:46.040 ","End":"00:48.155","Text":"the combination of configuration and confirmation,"},{"Start":"00:48.155 ","End":"00:50.390","Text":"as we had covered in the previous section,"},{"Start":"00:50.390 ","End":"00:53.495","Text":"is critical in their biological interactions."},{"Start":"00:53.495 ","End":"00:56.580","Text":"How they are arranged and set,"},{"Start":"00:56.580 ","End":"01:02.615","Text":"this defines and affects how they will bind and interact"},{"Start":"01:02.615 ","End":"01:08.510","Text":"with other biomolecules and thus result in different interactions,"},{"Start":"01:08.510 ","End":"01:10.700","Text":"different products, different results."},{"Start":"01:10.700 ","End":"01:12.980","Text":"Therefore, the term that defines the importance of"},{"Start":"01:12.980 ","End":"01:15.830","Text":"the configuration confirmation to chemical interactions between"},{"Start":"01:15.830 ","End":"01:21.910","Text":"biomolecules is stereospecificity. Let\u0027s move on."}],"ID":27102},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 14","Duration":"3m 51s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26187,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.360","Text":"Ready to test your knowledge on the topic of interactions between"},{"Start":"00:03.360 ","End":"00:06.570","Text":"biomolecules within chemical foundation. Here we go."},{"Start":"00:06.570 ","End":"00:11.550","Text":"Give at least 2 examples of biomolecules that have stereospecific interactions."},{"Start":"00:11.550 ","End":"00:14.400","Text":"We mentioned 3 specific examples,"},{"Start":"00:14.400 ","End":"00:17.310","Text":"let\u0027s go with all 3."},{"Start":"00:17.310 ","End":"00:19.590","Text":"Enzyme and its substrate,"},{"Start":"00:19.590 ","End":"00:22.515","Text":"hormone and its receptor,"},{"Start":"00:22.515 ","End":"00:26.144","Text":"antigen and its specific antibody."},{"Start":"00:26.144 ","End":"00:28.860","Text":"You could have named any 2 of these."},{"Start":"00:28.860 ","End":"00:34.590","Text":"Remember, we in this section talked about enzymes and its say"},{"Start":"00:34.590 ","End":"00:37.185","Text":"specific receptors and we had picture of enzymes"},{"Start":"00:37.185 ","End":"00:41.780","Text":"and they having pockets for 2 substrates."},{"Start":"00:41.780 ","End":"00:43.430","Text":"But if we go back to previous sections,"},{"Start":"00:43.430 ","End":"00:45.620","Text":"we even talked about enzyme, let\u0027s say the Pac-Man,"},{"Start":"00:45.620 ","End":"00:48.260","Text":"that the substrate will be specific by being"},{"Start":"00:48.260 ","End":"00:51.080","Text":"a triangle versus another one that will have,"},{"Start":"00:51.080 ","End":"00:55.725","Text":"so good at drawing a substrate that will be elliptical."},{"Start":"00:55.725 ","End":"01:00.200","Text":"These are 2 different enzymes and their specific substrate."},{"Start":"01:00.200 ","End":"01:03.365","Text":"This also means that this substrate can\u0027t fit,"},{"Start":"01:03.365 ","End":"01:10.055","Text":"if it looks like a bean it won\u0027t fit in this pocket here."},{"Start":"01:10.055 ","End":"01:13.370","Text":"The orientation, the confirmation is important as well."},{"Start":"01:13.370 ","End":"01:15.665","Text":"Hormone and its receptor also,"},{"Start":"01:15.665 ","End":"01:18.565","Text":"let\u0027s say the hormone is a diamond shape."},{"Start":"01:18.565 ","End":"01:21.890","Text":"You have different cells with different receptors."},{"Start":"01:21.890 ","End":"01:27.815","Text":"Unless you have a receptor that fits this diamond shape, it won\u0027t bind."},{"Start":"01:27.815 ","End":"01:31.160","Text":"If you have cell target,"},{"Start":"01:31.160 ","End":"01:33.620","Text":"non-target, these are cells,"},{"Start":"01:33.620 ","End":"01:37.640","Text":"this specific hormone, we\u0027ll call it a hormone A,"},{"Start":"01:37.640 ","End":"01:40.905","Text":"will not fit in this receptor."},{"Start":"01:40.905 ","End":"01:44.840","Text":"There will not be an interaction between"},{"Start":"01:44.840 ","End":"01:49.070","Text":"them and only the target cell for the receptor will have an interaction,"},{"Start":"01:49.070 ","End":"01:53.615","Text":"and therefore there will be some reaction that occurs."},{"Start":"01:53.615 ","End":"01:58.340","Text":"The third example we talked about are antigens and their specific antibodies."},{"Start":"01:58.340 ","End":"01:59.765","Text":"If you have an antibody,"},{"Start":"01:59.765 ","End":"02:05.795","Text":"it\u0027s generally a Y shape and it will have this binding area here and if you remember,"},{"Start":"02:05.795 ","End":"02:09.485","Text":"we had illustration there with a cell with different shapes."},{"Start":"02:09.485 ","End":"02:14.120","Text":"The shape of the circle will be what can bind to this antibody."},{"Start":"02:14.120 ","End":"02:18.440","Text":"If you have a different antibody that has a different shape than"},{"Start":"02:18.440 ","End":"02:24.450","Text":"the binding site this won\u0027t bind this antigen, this circle."},{"Start":"02:24.610 ","End":"02:29.419","Text":"All these things have a shape,"},{"Start":"02:29.419 ","End":"02:32.750","Text":"but there are also chemical properties and we use colors"},{"Start":"02:32.750 ","End":"02:36.200","Text":"to define those so it\u0027s not just the straight-up shape."},{"Start":"02:36.200 ","End":"02:37.820","Text":"Let\u0027s see examples again."},{"Start":"02:37.820 ","End":"02:39.920","Text":"You have enzyme and a substrate."},{"Start":"02:39.920 ","End":"02:42.965","Text":"In this case, it\u0027s not just the shape you have colors;"},{"Start":"02:42.965 ","End":"02:44.660","Text":"1 is pink, 2 is purple."},{"Start":"02:44.660 ","End":"02:47.180","Text":"The pink will fit in the left side,"},{"Start":"02:47.180 ","End":"02:50.150","Text":"the purple on the right side and generally, that is how it will fit."},{"Start":"02:50.150 ","End":"02:53.600","Text":"It will not be flipped and therefore the product"},{"Start":"02:53.600 ","End":"02:57.990","Text":"will be made as one specific product based on this interaction."},{"Start":"02:57.990 ","End":"03:01.190","Text":"We also again talked about hormones and receptors."},{"Start":"03:01.190 ","End":"03:02.720","Text":"You have the hormone with this shape,"},{"Start":"03:02.720 ","End":"03:06.650","Text":"you have the target cell with a receptor that compliments this shape."},{"Start":"03:06.650 ","End":"03:08.690","Text":"You have other receptors maybe even on"},{"Start":"03:08.690 ","End":"03:10.955","Text":"the same target cell that don\u0027t match this hormone."},{"Start":"03:10.955 ","End":"03:15.170","Text":"Then you have a non-target cell that though it has different receptors,"},{"Start":"03:15.170 ","End":"03:17.465","Text":"it does not have the receptor that\u0027s specific for this hormone."},{"Start":"03:17.465 ","End":"03:19.430","Text":"Therefore, there won\u0027t be binding and no"},{"Start":"03:19.430 ","End":"03:22.580","Text":"cascade in the cell as a reaction to the hormone."},{"Start":"03:22.580 ","End":"03:24.470","Text":"The last and third example that we gave,"},{"Start":"03:24.470 ","End":"03:28.010","Text":"antigens and their specific antibodies."},{"Start":"03:28.010 ","End":"03:29.540","Text":"This one will react with this."},{"Start":"03:29.540 ","End":"03:31.190","Text":"The green will react with the green."},{"Start":"03:31.190 ","End":"03:33.140","Text":"The yellow will react with the orange."},{"Start":"03:33.140 ","End":"03:34.820","Text":"You have the specific shape,"},{"Start":"03:34.820 ","End":"03:40.805","Text":"the specific properties and the antibodies will react and bind to"},{"Start":"03:40.805 ","End":"03:48.215","Text":"the specific antigen and result in whatever immune response that that cascade is part of."},{"Start":"03:48.215 ","End":"03:51.900","Text":"Hopefully, you remembered the examples and we can move forward."}],"ID":27103},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 15","Duration":"2m 3s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26188,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":252537,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.360","Text":"Welcome to another exercise covering the topic of interactions"},{"Start":"00:03.360 ","End":"00:07.080","Text":"between biomolecules within chemical foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.080 ","End":"00:11.760","Text":"What can you say about chiral molecules that are present in living organisms?"},{"Start":"00:11.760 ","End":"00:14.160","Text":"Kind of talked about this at the end of the section."},{"Start":"00:14.160 ","End":"00:17.310","Text":"The answer is chiral molecules are usually present in"},{"Start":"00:17.310 ","End":"00:22.270","Text":"only one of their chiral forms in living organisms."},{"Start":"00:24.680 ","End":"00:29.820","Text":"We talked about the R and S living organism."},{"Start":"00:29.820 ","End":"00:35.725","Text":"A specific cell will only have one of these chiral forms."},{"Start":"00:35.725 ","End":"00:37.925","Text":"Represented in the cell."},{"Start":"00:37.925 ","End":"00:41.865","Text":"So living cells produce only one chiral form of a biomolecule because"},{"Start":"00:41.865 ","End":"00:45.980","Text":"the enzymes that synthesize that molecule are also chiral."},{"Start":"00:45.980 ","End":"00:50.540","Text":"Remember chiral handedness, it\u0027s from the word handedness."},{"Start":"00:50.540 ","End":"00:56.735","Text":"So just as you would have a glove that fits 1 hand,"},{"Start":"00:56.735 ","End":"01:00.800","Text":"you have a left glove to fit a left hand or right glove to fit right hand."},{"Start":"01:00.800 ","End":"01:02.300","Text":"That is the same idea here."},{"Start":"01:02.300 ","End":"01:03.470","Text":"Just like with shoes."},{"Start":"01:03.470 ","End":"01:05.435","Text":"Left shoe fits the left foot,"},{"Start":"01:05.435 ","End":"01:07.175","Text":"right shoe fits the right shoe."},{"Start":"01:07.175 ","End":"01:12.760","Text":"That is basically the chiral specificity."},{"Start":"01:12.760 ","End":"01:13.940","Text":"In contrast to a compound with"},{"Start":"01:13.940 ","End":"01:17.615","Text":"an asymmetric carbon that is chemically synthesized in a lab,"},{"Start":"01:17.615 ","End":"01:20.930","Text":"which tends to result in all possible chiral forms."},{"Start":"01:20.930 ","End":"01:22.915","Text":"When it\u0027s naturally,"},{"Start":"01:22.915 ","End":"01:31.310","Text":"you will find 1 chiral form in the lab when you\u0027re trying to create these compounds,"},{"Start":"01:31.310 ","End":"01:35.870","Text":"you can end up with all the possible varieties of the chiral forms."},{"Start":"01:35.870 ","End":"01:40.340","Text":"But this is a circumstance that is in a lab and not"},{"Start":"01:40.340 ","End":"01:46.250","Text":"defined by the rest of the complexity of the cell and the reactions in it."},{"Start":"01:46.250 ","End":"01:49.250","Text":"So just to further emphasize the point is that"},{"Start":"01:49.250 ","End":"01:54.190","Text":"living cells produce only one chiral form in general,"},{"Start":"01:54.190 ","End":"01:57.275","Text":"biomolecule in that cell."},{"Start":"01:57.275 ","End":"02:01.850","Text":"And it\u0027s because the enzymes that synthesize that molecule are also chiral."},{"Start":"02:01.850 ","End":"02:04.920","Text":"Thank you. See you soon."}],"ID":27104}],"Thumbnail":null,"ID":252537},{"Name":"Physical Foundation","TopicPlaylistFirstVideoID":0,"Duration":null,"Videos":[{"Watched":false,"Name":"Intro to Physical Foundation and Dynamic Steady State","Duration":"8m 8s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25716,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.020 ","End":"00:04.334","Text":"We are now diving into a new topic,"},{"Start":"00:04.334 ","End":"00:08.730","Text":"Physical Foundation, and we will be covering Dynamic steady-state."},{"Start":"00:08.730 ","End":"00:12.180","Text":"By the end of this section, you\u0027ll be able to describe what the dynamic steady-state"},{"Start":"00:12.180 ","End":"00:15.570","Text":"of an organism means and state what is required to maintain a state,"},{"Start":"00:15.570 ","End":"00:18.265","Text":"and what happens when a cell can no longer do this."},{"Start":"00:18.265 ","End":"00:21.230","Text":"Living organisms exist in a dynamic steady state."},{"Start":"00:21.230 ","End":"00:24.920","Text":"This is the term, not an equilibrium with their surroundings."},{"Start":"00:24.920 ","End":"00:26.330","Text":"What does equilibrium mean?"},{"Start":"00:26.330 ","End":"00:31.745","Text":"It means a state in which opposing forces or different forces or influences are balanced."},{"Start":"00:31.745 ","End":"00:34.205","Text":"A state of physical balance."},{"Start":"00:34.205 ","End":"00:37.535","Text":"The molecules and ions within an organism"},{"Start":"00:37.535 ","End":"00:42.680","Text":"differ in kind and in concentration from the organisms in their environments."},{"Start":"00:42.680 ","End":"00:45.230","Text":"What is within the organism is not necessarily what"},{"Start":"00:45.230 ","End":"00:48.950","Text":"is in its environment and what is in its environment,"},{"Start":"00:48.950 ","End":"00:52.580","Text":"what other organisms are in that same environment don\u0027t necessarily have"},{"Start":"00:52.580 ","End":"00:57.440","Text":"the same composition and concentration of molecules."},{"Start":"00:57.440 ","End":"01:00.145","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about this. A fish in the ocean."},{"Start":"01:00.145 ","End":"01:04.760","Text":"A fish, we\u0027re talking about this fish versus this fish."},{"Start":"01:04.760 ","End":"01:07.610","Text":"You see that the composition, a fish in the ocean."},{"Start":"01:07.610 ","End":"01:09.110","Text":"The ocean, saltwater,"},{"Start":"01:09.110 ","End":"01:12.135","Text":"and we\u0027re here at fish,"},{"Start":"01:12.135 ","End":"01:15.680","Text":"variety of fish we\u0027re seeing multiple different fish in the ocean."},{"Start":"01:15.680 ","End":"01:17.525","Text":"There\u0027s also coral and turtles."},{"Start":"01:17.525 ","End":"01:21.410","Text":"These are different organisms and part of what makes them different"},{"Start":"01:21.410 ","End":"01:25.400","Text":"aside from their genetics is the composition within them, the molecules,"},{"Start":"01:25.400 ","End":"01:27.360","Text":"the breakdown, the synthesis,"},{"Start":"01:27.360 ","End":"01:28.800","Text":"the enzymes, the organisms,"},{"Start":"01:28.800 ","End":"01:31.475","Text":"so these are different from each other,"},{"Start":"01:31.475 ","End":"01:34.270","Text":"while they\u0027re also different from the ocean."},{"Start":"01:34.270 ","End":"01:36.800","Text":"Their salt content is not the same as ocean."},{"Start":"01:36.800 ","End":"01:39.980","Text":"Their mineral content is not the same as the water of the ocean."},{"Start":"01:39.980 ","End":"01:42.515","Text":"Another example of bacteria in the soil."},{"Start":"01:42.515 ","End":"01:46.955","Text":"What the bacteria consists of is different from what the soil consists of."},{"Start":"01:46.955 ","End":"01:49.010","Text":"Another example, a fungus on a tree."},{"Start":"01:49.010 ","End":"01:52.400","Text":"A fungus, is a type of mushroom that\u0027s growing on tree."},{"Start":"01:52.400 ","End":"01:56.120","Text":"It\u0027s completely different than the tree itself."},{"Start":"01:56.120 ","End":"01:57.505","Text":"It doesn\u0027t have the roots like the tree,"},{"Start":"01:57.505 ","End":"01:59.720","Text":"it doesn\u0027t have the growth like the tree."},{"Start":"01:59.720 ","End":"02:06.890","Text":"What we\u0027re talking about here are organisms in an environment that their content,"},{"Start":"02:06.890 ","End":"02:10.355","Text":"their composition is very different from the environment."},{"Start":"02:10.355 ","End":"02:12.380","Text":"Once an organism reaches maturity,"},{"Start":"02:12.380 ","End":"02:16.490","Text":"it maintains a constant composition and its constantly changing environment."},{"Start":"02:16.490 ","End":"02:18.260","Text":"Even if the environment changes,"},{"Start":"02:18.260 ","End":"02:19.700","Text":"let\u0027s say the fish in the sea,"},{"Start":"02:19.700 ","End":"02:22.790","Text":"we have changes of seasons, changes of temperatures."},{"Start":"02:22.790 ","End":"02:25.849","Text":"You have water freezing."},{"Start":"02:25.849 ","End":"02:28.100","Text":"Even though this occurs,"},{"Start":"02:28.100 ","End":"02:30.530","Text":"the mature fish, the adult fish,"},{"Start":"02:30.530 ","End":"02:31.835","Text":"the turtle, the coral,"},{"Start":"02:31.835 ","End":"02:36.500","Text":"its composition will remain somewhat constant."},{"Start":"02:36.500 ","End":"02:42.320","Text":"Yet while the characteristic composition of an organism stays quite stable through time,"},{"Start":"02:42.320 ","End":"02:46.640","Text":"the population of molecules within the organism is not constant."},{"Start":"02:46.640 ","End":"02:52.320","Text":"Even though the fish seems to have the same composition within it,"},{"Start":"02:52.320 ","End":"02:57.005","Text":"if you actually look at the specific molecules, biomolecules,"},{"Start":"02:57.005 ","End":"02:59.360","Text":"chemicals in the fish,"},{"Start":"02:59.360 ","End":"03:02.240","Text":"there is constantly going to be a change."},{"Start":"03:02.240 ","End":"03:04.655","Text":"What this means, let\u0027s step back."},{"Start":"03:04.655 ","End":"03:07.080","Text":"Small molecules, macromolecules,"},{"Start":"03:07.080 ","End":"03:10.970","Text":"and supramolecular complexes are continuously created and broken"},{"Start":"03:10.970 ","End":"03:13.400","Text":"down via chemical reactions that involve"},{"Start":"03:13.400 ","End":"03:16.070","Text":"a constant change of mass and energy through the systems."},{"Start":"03:16.070 ","End":"03:20.220","Text":"These chemical reactions and we talked about this in the section of biomolecules,"},{"Start":"03:20.220 ","End":"03:25.445","Text":"are responsible for changing small molecules to macromolecules,"},{"Start":"03:25.445 ","End":"03:28.445","Text":"macromolecules to supramolecular complexes,"},{"Start":"03:28.445 ","End":"03:30.965","Text":"and reverse, vice versa."},{"Start":"03:30.965 ","End":"03:35.135","Text":"You will also have enzymes or machinery"},{"Start":"03:35.135 ","End":"03:37.610","Text":"that will break down supramolecular complexes"},{"Start":"03:37.610 ","End":"03:40.205","Text":"to macromolecules and macromolecules to small molecules."},{"Start":"03:40.205 ","End":"03:42.695","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about the example of enzymes that we had talked about."},{"Start":"03:42.695 ","End":"03:44.375","Text":"We can have monomers, single,"},{"Start":"03:44.375 ","End":"03:48.145","Text":"a single molecule, monomers from the word mono if you remember."},{"Start":"03:48.145 ","End":"03:50.374","Text":"We have a polymer, so it\u0027s many,"},{"Start":"03:50.374 ","End":"03:52.430","Text":"it\u0027s a chain of molecules."},{"Start":"03:52.430 ","End":"03:58.520","Text":"Enzyme A which catalyzes the synthesis of macromolecules when the energy level,"},{"Start":"03:58.520 ","End":"04:00.770","Text":"when there\u0027s ATP present,"},{"Start":"04:00.770 ","End":"04:03.725","Text":"when it is present in high amounts in the cell."},{"Start":"04:03.725 ","End":"04:06.590","Text":"Again, enzyme A catalyzes the synthesis of"},{"Start":"04:06.590 ","End":"04:09.650","Text":"macromolecules from the monomers, so the monomers,"},{"Start":"04:09.650 ","End":"04:13.235","Text":"it catalyzes into polymers when the energy levels,"},{"Start":"04:13.235 ","End":"04:14.745","Text":"and when we say energy,"},{"Start":"04:14.745 ","End":"04:16.265","Text":"ATP in cells are high."},{"Start":"04:16.265 ","End":"04:20.840","Text":"On the other hand, we have enzyme B and it catalyzes"},{"Start":"04:20.840 ","End":"04:25.925","Text":"the degradation of macromolecules when the energy levels ATP in the cells are low."},{"Start":"04:25.925 ","End":"04:27.995","Text":"If you see the arrow here,"},{"Start":"04:27.995 ","End":"04:32.675","Text":"enzyme A going from single molecules to a chain,"},{"Start":"04:32.675 ","End":"04:37.955","Text":"enzyme B, the arrow here going from a chain and to single molecule."},{"Start":"04:37.955 ","End":"04:39.695","Text":"Moving to metabolism."},{"Start":"04:39.695 ","End":"04:42.560","Text":"We talked about metabolism also in previous sections and we have"},{"Start":"04:42.560 ","End":"04:45.770","Text":"done metabolism breakdown and synthesis of molecules."},{"Start":"04:45.770 ","End":"04:50.300","Text":"You have smaller molecules that when you have presence of ATP and investment of"},{"Start":"04:50.300 ","End":"04:54.905","Text":"energy it is utilized and synthesized into larger molecules."},{"Start":"04:54.905 ","End":"04:56.750","Text":"This process is called anabolism,"},{"Start":"04:56.750 ","End":"05:00.305","Text":"heat is released and you get larger molecules."},{"Start":"05:00.305 ","End":"05:05.630","Text":"Larger molecules are broken down as a smaller molecules with ATP being released,"},{"Start":"05:05.630 ","End":"05:07.820","Text":"and that is catabolism."},{"Start":"05:07.820 ","End":"05:10.160","Text":"Catabolism is the process of the breakdown of"},{"Start":"05:10.160 ","End":"05:12.875","Text":"larger molecules into smaller molecules and anabolism,"},{"Start":"05:12.875 ","End":"05:14.390","Text":"smaller to larger molecules."},{"Start":"05:14.390 ","End":"05:16.969","Text":"This is the process of metabolism."},{"Start":"05:16.969 ","End":"05:18.620","Text":"When you have the breakdown molecules,"},{"Start":"05:18.620 ","End":"05:21.815","Text":"ATP is released, heat is released, and waste is released."},{"Start":"05:21.815 ","End":"05:25.760","Text":"When they build the larger molecules to get nutrients invested, etc."},{"Start":"05:25.760 ","End":"05:28.310","Text":"This is constantly going on."},{"Start":"05:28.310 ","End":"05:31.760","Text":"This investment of energy to build up molecules and the release of"},{"Start":"05:31.760 ","End":"05:35.734","Text":"energy as there is breakdown of molecules this is metabolism."},{"Start":"05:35.734 ","End":"05:39.905","Text":"There is this constant change of mass and energy through the system,"},{"Start":"05:39.905 ","End":"05:45.605","Text":"yet it remains somewhat big picture and the same."},{"Start":"05:45.605 ","End":"05:47.465","Text":"For example, sugar."},{"Start":"05:47.465 ","End":"05:51.020","Text":"Glucose is consumed in a meal and it will circulate in the bloodstream."},{"Start":"05:51.020 ","End":"05:52.400","Text":"By the end of the day,"},{"Start":"05:52.400 ","End":"05:56.785","Text":"those particular glucose molecules will have been converted into something different."},{"Start":"05:56.785 ","End":"05:59.045","Text":"CO2, carbon dioxide, or fat."},{"Start":"05:59.045 ","End":"06:03.635","Text":"This is by breakdown and utilization of the glucose for energy releases CO2,"},{"Start":"06:03.635 ","End":"06:06.245","Text":"or it turns into storage cells fat."},{"Start":"06:06.245 ","End":"06:10.100","Text":"Likely it will have been replaced with a fresh supply of glucose so that"},{"Start":"06:10.100 ","End":"06:13.805","Text":"the blood glucose concentration is essentially constant over the entire day."},{"Start":"06:13.805 ","End":"06:15.005","Text":"That\u0027s why we get hungry."},{"Start":"06:15.005 ","End":"06:16.670","Text":"That\u0027s why we consume food."},{"Start":"06:16.670 ","End":"06:19.010","Text":"The amount of glucose in the blood remains nearly"},{"Start":"06:19.010 ","End":"06:21.440","Text":"constant due to the rate of synthesis or intake."},{"Start":"06:21.440 ","End":"06:23.945","Text":"It\u0027s balanced with the rate of breakdown,"},{"Start":"06:23.945 ","End":"06:27.475","Text":"consumption, or conversion into some other substance."},{"Start":"06:27.475 ","End":"06:29.435","Text":"What did I say here?"},{"Start":"06:29.435 ","End":"06:32.750","Text":"We have glucose in the blood and it remains nearly constant,"},{"Start":"06:32.750 ","End":"06:35.810","Text":"it\u0027s because the rate that we take it in, that we eat it,"},{"Start":"06:35.810 ","End":"06:40.430","Text":"that we consume it is balanced with the rate of breakdown of utilization of it,"},{"Start":"06:40.430 ","End":"06:44.810","Text":"of consumption or conversion of it into some other substance like fat."},{"Start":"06:44.810 ","End":"06:48.980","Text":"Now, this is true for other molecules."},{"Start":"06:48.980 ","End":"06:51.530","Text":"Therefore, it can be a different molecule."},{"Start":"06:51.530 ","End":"06:55.085","Text":"The rate of synthesis is balanced with the rate of breakdown."},{"Start":"06:55.085 ","End":"07:01.685","Text":"This consistency in concentration is the result of a dynamic steady state,"},{"Start":"07:01.685 ","End":"07:04.130","Text":"and that is where this term comes into play."},{"Start":"07:04.130 ","End":"07:08.870","Text":"This consistency in concentration is the result of"},{"Start":"07:08.870 ","End":"07:13.955","Text":"a dynamic steady state which is far from equilibrium."},{"Start":"07:13.955 ","End":"07:18.335","Text":"Maintaining the steady-state requires continuous investment of energy."},{"Start":"07:18.335 ","End":"07:22.910","Text":"In other words, creating and maintaining order requires work and"},{"Start":"07:22.910 ","End":"07:28.040","Text":"energy because there needs to be some order within the cells of an organism."},{"Start":"07:28.040 ","End":"07:32.315","Text":"When a cell is no longer able to obtain and utilize energy, it dies."},{"Start":"07:32.315 ","End":"07:36.295","Text":"It\u0027s not able to maintain this dynamic steady-state,"},{"Start":"07:36.295 ","End":"07:39.079","Text":"and it begins to decay towards an equilibrium."},{"Start":"07:39.079 ","End":"07:43.865","Text":"It dies and begins to decay toward equilibrium with its surrounding,"},{"Start":"07:43.865 ","End":"07:46.340","Text":"means it breaks apart and equalizes."},{"Start":"07:46.340 ","End":"07:49.100","Text":"It\u0027s no longer a membrane, a cell,"},{"Start":"07:49.100 ","End":"07:53.150","Text":"or organism that is separate and different from its surrounding."},{"Start":"07:53.150 ","End":"07:56.465","Text":"With that, hopefully you understood"},{"Start":"07:56.465 ","End":"07:59.660","Text":"and now can describe what the dynamics steady-state of an organism"},{"Start":"07:59.660 ","End":"08:02.450","Text":"means and state what is required to"},{"Start":"08:02.450 ","End":"08:06.080","Text":"maintain the state and what happens when a cell can no longer do this."},{"Start":"08:06.080 ","End":"08:09.300","Text":"Thanks, and we\u0027ll meet back here."}],"ID":27025},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 1","Duration":"1m 30s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25717,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:05.820","Text":"Here we are with an exercise covering dynamics steady state within physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:05.820 ","End":"00:11.100","Text":"Let\u0027s start with defining the term dynamic steady state."},{"Start":"00:11.100 ","End":"00:15.540","Text":"Remember, dynamic steady state."},{"Start":"00:15.540 ","End":"00:19.154","Text":"So something remains steady but it\u0027s ever-changing."},{"Start":"00:19.154 ","End":"00:26.385","Text":"While the characteristic composition of an organism stays quite stable through time,"},{"Start":"00:26.385 ","End":"00:30.870","Text":"the population of molecules within the organism is not constant,"},{"Start":"00:30.870 ","End":"00:32.730","Text":"therefore, the term dynamic."},{"Start":"00:32.730 ","End":"00:35.810","Text":"Again, while the characteristic composition of an organism,"},{"Start":"00:35.810 ","End":"00:39.470","Text":"what the organism consists of stays quite stable through time,"},{"Start":"00:39.470 ","End":"00:42.955","Text":"the population of molecules within the organism is not constant."},{"Start":"00:42.955 ","End":"00:45.620","Text":"So the chemicals, the biochemicals,"},{"Start":"00:45.620 ","End":"00:50.075","Text":"the bio-molecules that are in the organism, they are ever-changing."},{"Start":"00:50.075 ","End":"00:51.890","Text":"Small molecules, macromolecules,"},{"Start":"00:51.890 ","End":"00:56.000","Text":"and supramolecular complexes are continuously created and broken down"},{"Start":"00:56.000 ","End":"00:57.980","Text":"via chemical reactions that involve"},{"Start":"00:57.980 ","End":"01:00.710","Text":"a constant change of mass and energy through the system."},{"Start":"01:00.710 ","End":"01:05.480","Text":"Sometimes you need to invest energy in order to build the macromolecules"},{"Start":"01:05.480 ","End":"01:10.655","Text":"or supramolecular complexes and sometimes the breakdown of them will release energy."},{"Start":"01:10.655 ","End":"01:14.135","Text":"Consistency in concentration is the result"},{"Start":"01:14.135 ","End":"01:18.155","Text":"of a dynamic steady state which is far from equilibrium."},{"Start":"01:18.155 ","End":"01:22.250","Text":"This consistency in concentration is the result of"},{"Start":"01:22.250 ","End":"01:27.440","Text":"a dynamic steady state which is far from equilibrium, and there you have it."},{"Start":"01:27.440 ","End":"01:30.900","Text":"That is our dynamic steady state."}],"ID":27026},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 2","Duration":"1m 15s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25718,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.430","Text":"Hi there. We\u0027re testing our knowledge in"},{"Start":"00:02.430 ","End":"00:06.195","Text":"the dynamic steady-state within physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:06.195 ","End":"00:09.210","Text":"Remember the term dynamic steady state."},{"Start":"00:09.210 ","End":"00:14.010","Text":"What is required in order to maintain this dynamic steady state?"},{"Start":"00:14.010 ","End":"00:17.730","Text":"The answer to that is the continuous investment of energy is"},{"Start":"00:17.730 ","End":"00:21.645","Text":"required by the organism in order to maintain the dynamic steady-state."},{"Start":"00:21.645 ","End":"00:30.270","Text":"In essence, it has to continuously invest work in order to stay with the stable state."},{"Start":"00:30.270 ","End":"00:35.925","Text":"On the other hand, when the organism no longer has energy to maintain this steady-state,"},{"Start":"00:35.925 ","End":"00:42.890","Text":"the breakdown and synthesis of molecules that keeps this organism alive and maintain."},{"Start":"00:42.890 ","End":"00:46.145","Text":"When the organism no longer has energy to do work,"},{"Start":"00:46.145 ","End":"00:51.380","Text":"it dies, and then it reaches equilibrium within its surrounding."},{"Start":"00:51.380 ","End":"00:55.040","Text":"It\u0027s actually when there is no more energy to"},{"Start":"00:55.040 ","End":"00:59.285","Text":"maintain the steady-state to invest to do the work."},{"Start":"00:59.285 ","End":"01:01.685","Text":"Therefore, no energy, no work."},{"Start":"01:01.685 ","End":"01:06.830","Text":"The cell will die and it moves closer"},{"Start":"01:06.830 ","End":"01:12.455","Text":"and closer to equilibrium with its environment."},{"Start":"01:12.455 ","End":"01:16.470","Text":"Hopefully we understood that and can move on."}],"ID":27027},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 3","Duration":"54s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25719,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.660","Text":"Welcome back. We are covering an exercise within"},{"Start":"00:03.660 ","End":"00:08.475","Text":"dynamic steady state in physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:08.475 ","End":"00:11.835","Text":"Hopefully, this one will be an easy-peasy one for you."},{"Start":"00:11.835 ","End":"00:16.950","Text":"What happens when a cell is no longer able to obtain and utilize energy?"},{"Start":"00:16.950 ","End":"00:21.510","Text":"It dies and begins to decay toward equilibrium with its surroundings."},{"Start":"00:21.510 ","End":"00:26.130","Text":"Again, we talked about when it no longer has energy"},{"Start":"00:26.130 ","End":"00:31.455","Text":"accessible to maintain the steady state, to do metabolism,"},{"Start":"00:31.455 ","End":"00:35.910","Text":"synthesis, breakdown, then it begins to decay,"},{"Start":"00:35.910 ","End":"00:39.465","Text":"and once it begins to decay and dies,"},{"Start":"00:39.465 ","End":"00:45.590","Text":"it starts reaching equilibrium with its surroundings."},{"Start":"00:45.590 ","End":"00:52.190","Text":"No more energy, cell dies, decays, and equilibrium."},{"Start":"00:52.190 ","End":"00:54.420","Text":"See you in the next section."}],"ID":27028},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Energy Conversion part 1","Duration":"11m 15s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25720,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:05.605","Text":"Welcome to the topic of energy conversion that we will dive into and further"},{"Start":"00:05.605 ","End":"00:08.040","Text":"explain what we touched up upon"},{"Start":"00:08.040 ","End":"00:11.985","Text":"previously yet now we are covering it within physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:11.985 ","End":"00:13.470","Text":"By the end of this section, you should be able to"},{"Start":"00:13.470 ","End":"00:15.810","Text":"describe energy conversion and significance,"},{"Start":"00:15.810 ","End":"00:21.555","Text":"define reduction, oxidation and redox reactions, and understand homeostasis."},{"Start":"00:21.555 ","End":"00:27.205","Text":"Now, I\u0027m going to divide this into 2 parts and Part I,"},{"Start":"00:27.205 ","End":"00:29.960","Text":"we will actually focus on describing energy conversion and"},{"Start":"00:29.960 ","End":"00:32.960","Text":"its significance and define reduction,"},{"Start":"00:32.960 ","End":"00:35.150","Text":"oxidation and redox reactions."},{"Start":"00:35.150 ","End":"00:38.247","Text":"These are now going to be heavy in terminology,"},{"Start":"00:38.247 ","End":"00:42.710","Text":"so just stick with us and I can go over them and watch the video again."},{"Start":"00:42.710 ","End":"00:45.770","Text":"As I mentioned previously, energy conversion in biological systems,"},{"Start":"00:45.770 ","End":"00:47.660","Text":"which is also known as bioenergetics,"},{"Start":"00:47.660 ","End":"00:49.715","Text":"is necessary for cells to survive."},{"Start":"00:49.715 ","End":"00:56.645","Text":"All organisms derive their energy directly or indirectly from radiant light energy,"},{"Start":"00:56.645 ","End":"00:59.885","Text":"which means energy of the sun, solar energy."},{"Start":"00:59.885 ","End":"01:04.640","Text":"The solar energy that is absorbed by organisms is transformed"},{"Start":"01:04.640 ","End":"01:09.200","Text":"into chemical energy which is then used to perform the work,"},{"Start":"01:09.200 ","End":"01:11.059","Text":"the functions needed for the organisms,"},{"Start":"01:11.059 ","End":"01:12.470","Text":"the cells to survive."},{"Start":"01:12.470 ","End":"01:17.120","Text":"We talked about that in order to maintain and have viability,"},{"Start":"01:17.120 ","End":"01:20.960","Text":"cells need to constantly and organisms invest energy."},{"Start":"01:20.960 ","End":"01:24.200","Text":"This solar energy is transformed into chemical energy,"},{"Start":"01:24.200 ","End":"01:26.420","Text":"which in turn is then used to perform the work,"},{"Start":"01:26.420 ","End":"01:27.725","Text":"the functions that are needed."},{"Start":"01:27.725 ","End":"01:31.250","Text":"Organisms that utilize solar energy and convert it to chemical energy"},{"Start":"01:31.250 ","End":"01:34.925","Text":"are termed photosynthetic organisms and more specifically,"},{"Start":"01:34.925 ","End":"01:37.655","Text":"we learned this previously, photoautotrophs."},{"Start":"01:37.655 ","End":"01:39.260","Text":"We covered this in a previous section,"},{"Start":"01:39.260 ","End":"01:41.555","Text":"so you may be familiar with this figure"},{"Start":"01:41.555 ","End":"01:44.765","Text":"and we are now going to focus on the right-hand side."},{"Start":"01:44.765 ","End":"01:46.690","Text":"If we look at the left-hand side,"},{"Start":"01:46.690 ","End":"01:51.305","Text":"these are the organisms that rely on chemical energy, chemotrophs."},{"Start":"01:51.305 ","End":"01:55.010","Text":"What we\u0027re focusing now on the side of taking light energy,"},{"Start":"01:55.010 ","End":"02:00.020","Text":"phototrophs and utilizing it and specifically those that"},{"Start":"02:00.020 ","End":"02:05.255","Text":"can use the light energy and nutrients from the environment,"},{"Start":"02:05.255 ","End":"02:11.665","Text":"like carbon dioxide, in order to create energy and release energy."},{"Start":"02:11.665 ","End":"02:15.020","Text":"We have photosynthetic organisms,"},{"Start":"02:15.020 ","End":"02:20.045","Text":"also known as photoautotrophs and these are the ones that absorb solar energy,"},{"Start":"02:20.045 ","End":"02:23.525","Text":"sun energy to create chemical energy for work."},{"Start":"02:23.525 ","End":"02:26.255","Text":"These affect almost all biological processes on Earth,"},{"Start":"02:26.255 ","End":"02:29.045","Text":"either directly or indirectly because"},{"Start":"02:29.045 ","End":"02:34.670","Text":"all organisms will need to have energy in order to function."},{"Start":"02:34.670 ","End":"02:37.160","Text":"They use this chemical energy to sustain life"},{"Start":"02:37.160 ","End":"02:39.354","Text":"during daylight hours and to produce carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"02:39.354 ","End":"02:44.765","Text":"glucose specifically from CO_2 that can be stored as metabolic fuel for use at night."},{"Start":"02:44.765 ","End":"02:46.410","Text":"We have the sun during the day."},{"Start":"02:46.410 ","End":"02:48.665","Text":"What happens, it absorbs the sun,"},{"Start":"02:48.665 ","End":"02:51.050","Text":"then it releases,"},{"Start":"02:51.050 ","End":"02:53.790","Text":"it\u0027s from the solar energy, chemical energy,"},{"Start":"02:53.790 ","End":"02:57.260","Text":"this chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates or glucose,"},{"Start":"02:57.260 ","End":"03:01.775","Text":"is actually retained within these photosynthetic organisms."},{"Start":"03:01.775 ","End":"03:08.660","Text":"Then it can be used throughout the night to maintain all the processes."},{"Start":"03:08.660 ","End":"03:13.670","Text":"It absorbs CO_2 from its surrounding and these together fulfill the cycle."},{"Start":"03:13.670 ","End":"03:16.190","Text":"Light-driven splitting of water during photosynthesis"},{"Start":"03:16.190 ","End":"03:18.560","Text":"releases its electrons for the reduction of"},{"Start":"03:18.560 ","End":"03:20.810","Text":"CO_2 and this is a new term and we\u0027re going to"},{"Start":"03:20.810 ","End":"03:24.350","Text":"explain this and the release of oxygen into the atmosphere."},{"Start":"03:24.350 ","End":"03:28.265","Text":"We have light, it causes the split of water."},{"Start":"03:28.265 ","End":"03:30.650","Text":"This is during the photosynthetic process,"},{"Start":"03:30.650 ","End":"03:35.540","Text":"you have release of electrons and what happens is it"},{"Start":"03:35.540 ","End":"03:40.745","Text":"reduces CO_2 and we have oxygen released into the atmosphere."},{"Start":"03:40.745 ","End":"03:44.820","Text":"Let\u0027s look at this from a chemical perspective."},{"Start":"03:44.820 ","End":"03:46.880","Text":"We have the carbohydrates,"},{"Start":"03:46.880 ","End":"03:49.100","Text":"CO_2, that\u0027s absorption atmosphere."},{"Start":"03:49.100 ","End":"03:52.535","Text":"We have water absorbed from the environment,"},{"Start":"03:52.535 ","End":"03:56.390","Text":"and we have the energy and in this case we\u0027re talking about solar energy."},{"Start":"03:56.390 ","End":"03:59.540","Text":"We have resulting as glucose,"},{"Start":"03:59.540 ","End":"04:02.365","Text":"the carbohydrate, and oxygen that\u0027s released."},{"Start":"04:02.365 ","End":"04:03.890","Text":"If you look here,"},{"Start":"04:03.890 ","End":"04:07.010","Text":"this is just a different way to visualize it."},{"Start":"04:07.010 ","End":"04:09.380","Text":"We have the carbon dioxide,"},{"Start":"04:09.380 ","End":"04:12.245","Text":"CO_2, we have the water, H_2O,"},{"Start":"04:12.245 ","End":"04:18.240","Text":"we have light that is introduced and in this reaction,"},{"Start":"04:18.240 ","End":"04:22.195","Text":"you have resulting glucose and oxygen."},{"Start":"04:22.195 ","End":"04:28.770","Text":"As you can see here, CO_2 started with having a ratio of 2 oxygen per 1 carbon."},{"Start":"04:28.770 ","End":"04:33.614","Text":"We have CO_2, 2 oxygens per 1 carbon and it results in a ratio"},{"Start":"04:33.614 ","End":"04:38.495","Text":"of 1 oxygen per carbon because you have 6 oxygens and 6 carbons,"},{"Start":"04:38.495 ","End":"04:39.860","Text":"so it\u0027s a ratio of 1:1."},{"Start":"04:39.860 ","End":"04:42.440","Text":"On the other hand, we have hydrogen that was added from"},{"Start":"04:42.440 ","End":"04:45.995","Text":"the water and this is now in a ratio of 2:1,"},{"Start":"04:45.995 ","End":"04:48.560","Text":"both to oxygen and to carbon."},{"Start":"04:48.560 ","End":"04:52.190","Text":"The rest of the extra oxygens have been released as"},{"Start":"04:52.190 ","End":"04:59.960","Text":"atmospheric oxygen that can be utilized for other organisms for aerobic metabolism."},{"Start":"04:59.960 ","End":"05:04.550","Text":"Let\u0027s look at this in a different manner."},{"Start":"05:04.550 ","End":"05:10.340","Text":"Solar energy is required to synthesize glucose during photosynthesis."},{"Start":"05:10.340 ","End":"05:11.870","Text":"We have solar energy,"},{"Start":"05:11.870 ","End":"05:16.550","Text":"we have a plant that has the photosynthetic abilities."},{"Start":"05:16.550 ","End":"05:19.040","Text":"We talked about chloroplasts previously,"},{"Start":"05:19.040 ","End":"05:22.700","Text":"these are the green pigmentations that allow photosynthesis."},{"Start":"05:22.700 ","End":"05:25.220","Text":"It absorbs chemical energy,"},{"Start":"05:25.220 ","End":"05:26.590","Text":"carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,"},{"Start":"05:26.590 ","End":"05:29.405","Text":"it absorbs water from the soil or the environment,"},{"Start":"05:29.405 ","End":"05:32.704","Text":"and it releases oxygen as well as energy."},{"Start":"05:32.704 ","End":"05:38.630","Text":"In biochemistry, E in a circle is shorthand for energy."},{"Start":"05:38.630 ","End":"05:44.000","Text":"It releases energy and generally it is in the form of glucose."},{"Start":"05:44.000 ","End":"05:46.860","Text":"So throughout some new terms, we\u0027re going to define them now."},{"Start":"05:46.860 ","End":"05:50.315","Text":"Let\u0027s define the related terms that I mentioned, oxidation and reduction."},{"Start":"05:50.315 ","End":"05:53.465","Text":"Oxidation and reduction can be defined in terms of the adding"},{"Start":"05:53.465 ","End":"05:56.930","Text":"or removing oxygen to a compound."},{"Start":"05:56.930 ","End":"05:58.565","Text":"Let\u0027s start with oxidation."},{"Start":"05:58.565 ","End":"06:01.280","Text":"Oxidation is the gain of oxygen."},{"Start":"06:01.280 ","End":"06:08.065","Text":"This one can be more easily remembered by the fact that it starts with oxi,"},{"Start":"06:08.065 ","End":"06:13.427","Text":"O-X-I, and that stands with oxygen, O-X-Y."},{"Start":"06:13.427 ","End":"06:16.880","Text":"Anything that gains oxygen has been"},{"Start":"06:16.880 ","End":"06:22.370","Text":"oxidized and that is the process of oxidation, gaining oxygen."},{"Start":"06:22.370 ","End":"06:23.915","Text":"Then we have reduction,"},{"Start":"06:23.915 ","End":"06:26.225","Text":"that is the loss of oxygen."},{"Start":"06:26.225 ","End":"06:30.755","Text":"Any molecule that has lost oxygen has been reduced."},{"Start":"06:30.755 ","End":"06:36.575","Text":"Now formally, the process referred to as reduction generally means a reaction in which"},{"Start":"06:36.575 ","End":"06:39.690","Text":"electrons are added to a compound and"},{"Start":"06:39.690 ","End":"06:43.175","Text":"the compound that gains electrons is said to be reduced."},{"Start":"06:43.175 ","End":"06:44.840","Text":"Here we\u0027re talking about oxygen,"},{"Start":"06:44.840 ","End":"06:47.870","Text":"but the other way to look at oxidation reduction reactions"},{"Start":"06:47.870 ","End":"06:51.350","Text":"is actually with regard to electrons,"},{"Start":"06:51.350 ","End":"06:53.600","Text":"and electrons have a negative charge."},{"Start":"06:53.600 ","End":"06:55.460","Text":"Stepping back, you have the full picture."},{"Start":"06:55.460 ","End":"06:58.100","Text":"Reduction is the loss of oxygen atoms from"},{"Start":"06:58.100 ","End":"07:01.310","Text":"a molecule or the gaining of 1 or more electrons."},{"Start":"07:01.310 ","End":"07:06.580","Text":"A reduction reaction is seen from the position of the molecule being reduced."},{"Start":"07:06.580 ","End":"07:10.190","Text":"As 1 molecule gets reduced, another gets oxidized."},{"Start":"07:10.190 ","End":"07:13.550","Text":"The full reaction is known as redox reaction."},{"Start":"07:13.550 ","End":"07:19.235","Text":"This is just the combination of the shorthand of reduction and oxidation."},{"Start":"07:19.235 ","End":"07:26.435","Text":"Redox, RD, you\u0027ve got reduction and oxidation."},{"Start":"07:26.435 ","End":"07:31.740","Text":"Again, because these 2 reactions go hand in hand."},{"Start":"07:31.740 ","End":"07:33.455","Text":"As you\u0027ve see in the figure,"},{"Start":"07:33.455 ","End":"07:35.615","Text":"in terms of electrons,"},{"Start":"07:35.615 ","End":"07:38.150","Text":"you have a reducing agent."},{"Start":"07:38.150 ","End":"07:42.590","Text":"This reducing agent has electrons and A,"},{"Start":"07:42.590 ","End":"07:47.915","Text":"it gave electrons away and now it has lost electrons therefore it\u0027s been oxidized."},{"Start":"07:47.915 ","End":"07:54.980","Text":"Called a reducing agent because it is reducing the other molecule, it\u0027s reducing B."},{"Start":"07:54.980 ","End":"08:00.530","Text":"B, that is going through reduction by gaining electrons,"},{"Start":"08:00.530 ","End":"08:05.080","Text":"it has been reduced is considered an oxidizing agent."},{"Start":"08:05.080 ","End":"08:08.825","Text":"This can seem confusing so I really want you to look at the figure."},{"Start":"08:08.825 ","End":"08:11.495","Text":"We have A that is going through oxidation,"},{"Start":"08:11.495 ","End":"08:13.430","Text":"we have B that\u0027s going through reduction."},{"Start":"08:13.430 ","End":"08:15.020","Text":"They go hand in hand,"},{"Start":"08:15.020 ","End":"08:18.634","Text":"which means that in order for A to go through oxidation,"},{"Start":"08:18.634 ","End":"08:20.315","Text":"B needs to oxidize it."},{"Start":"08:20.315 ","End":"08:22.580","Text":"In order for B to go through reduction,"},{"Start":"08:22.580 ","End":"08:24.830","Text":"you have A that needs to reduce it."},{"Start":"08:24.830 ","End":"08:28.340","Text":"All other organisms obtain chemical energy from their environment,"},{"Start":"08:28.340 ","End":"08:30.260","Text":"consuming the organic materials produced by"},{"Start":"08:30.260 ","End":"08:35.090","Text":"photosynthetic organisms and using them as metabolic fuel for aerobic respiration."},{"Start":"08:35.090 ","End":"08:37.490","Text":"We\u0027re going back to the idea of energy in"},{"Start":"08:37.490 ","End":"08:40.639","Text":"photosynthesis and putting it together from the previous sections."},{"Start":"08:40.639 ","End":"08:44.195","Text":"Chemotrophs, remember, they use chemical energy."},{"Start":"08:44.195 ","End":"08:47.870","Text":"Chemotrophs obtain the energy they need by oxidizing"},{"Start":"08:47.870 ","End":"08:53.180","Text":"the energy-rich products of photosynthesis stored in plants. That\u0027s a mouthful."},{"Start":"08:53.180 ","End":"08:56.959","Text":"All we\u0027re saying here is that chemotrophs utilize"},{"Start":"08:56.959 ","End":"09:02.000","Text":"the glucose that the photosynthetic organisms have produced."},{"Start":"09:02.000 ","End":"09:04.910","Text":"Now, it takes this glucose and utilizes this along"},{"Start":"09:04.910 ","End":"09:07.745","Text":"with atmospheric oxygen to form water,"},{"Start":"09:07.745 ","End":"09:09.980","Text":"CO_2, and other end products."},{"Start":"09:09.980 ","End":"09:13.475","Text":"Remember that breakdown that we had for photosynthesis,"},{"Start":"09:13.475 ","End":"09:15.140","Text":"you\u0027re going to see the opposite right now."},{"Start":"09:15.140 ","End":"09:18.035","Text":"These are then further recycled in the environment,"},{"Start":"09:18.035 ","End":"09:19.930","Text":"oxygen, CO_2, and water,"},{"Start":"09:19.930 ","End":"09:21.860","Text":"it\u0027s all part of a process."},{"Start":"09:21.860 ","End":"09:25.760","Text":"Now we\u0027re going to look at energy yielding oxidation of glucose,"},{"Start":"09:25.760 ","End":"09:31.250","Text":"whereas before we saw photosynthetic organisms taking CO_2,"},{"Start":"09:31.250 ","End":"09:35.845","Text":"solar energy and water and creating glucose and oxygen, the chemotrophs,"},{"Start":"09:35.845 ","End":"09:38.690","Text":"they are actually utilizing the glucose and oxygen that"},{"Start":"09:38.690 ","End":"09:41.780","Text":"was released by these photosynthetic organisms or"},{"Start":"09:41.780 ","End":"09:48.685","Text":"oxygen in the atmosphere and it releases carbon dioxide, water, and energy."},{"Start":"09:48.685 ","End":"09:54.650","Text":"Again, what this means is the photoautotrophs use the sun energy,"},{"Start":"09:54.650 ","End":"09:58.010","Text":"converted it to chemical energy,"},{"Start":"09:58.010 ","End":"09:59.840","Text":"which they then use in store,"},{"Start":"09:59.840 ","End":"10:03.350","Text":"utilizing this along with atmospheric O_2 to form water,"},{"Start":"10:03.350 ","End":"10:06.590","Text":"the chemotrophs release CO_2 and other"},{"Start":"10:06.590 ","End":"10:11.540","Text":"products and energy that they need in order to function."},{"Start":"10:11.540 ","End":"10:14.870","Text":"We introduced the mitochondria as an organelle in the cell,"},{"Start":"10:14.870 ","End":"10:17.420","Text":"the mitochondria is what creates the energy."},{"Start":"10:17.420 ","End":"10:22.725","Text":"We take the broken down glucose that was released by the photosynthetic organisms,"},{"Start":"10:22.725 ","End":"10:24.465","Text":"it absorbs oxygen,"},{"Start":"10:24.465 ","End":"10:25.860","Text":"it takes these,"},{"Start":"10:25.860 ","End":"10:29.810","Text":"goes through the chemical process of energy yielding oxidation of glucose,"},{"Start":"10:29.810 ","End":"10:32.165","Text":"and it releases energy in the form of ATP,"},{"Start":"10:32.165 ","End":"10:36.590","Text":"carbon dioxide, CO_2, and water, H_2O."},{"Start":"10:36.590 ","End":"10:41.420","Text":"We\u0027re starting to connect all these basic foundations and introductions that we had."},{"Start":"10:41.420 ","End":"10:42.650","Text":"We had chemical foundation,"},{"Start":"10:42.650 ","End":"10:47.885","Text":"now we have physical foundation and this is all part of the system"},{"Start":"10:47.885 ","End":"10:53.890","Text":"that is important for the recycling of molecules in the environment."},{"Start":"10:53.890 ","End":"10:57.440","Text":"With this, we end Part I of energy conversion and we describe"},{"Start":"10:57.440 ","End":"11:01.385","Text":"energy conversion and its significance and should be able to define reduction,"},{"Start":"11:01.385 ","End":"11:03.365","Text":"oxidation and redox reaction."},{"Start":"11:03.365 ","End":"11:04.985","Text":"We\u0027re going to go on to Part II."},{"Start":"11:04.985 ","End":"11:07.774","Text":"We will reiterate some of these terms."},{"Start":"11:07.774 ","End":"11:09.470","Text":"They can be confusing."},{"Start":"11:09.470 ","End":"11:14.105","Text":"Then we will relate it to the previous section that we covered."},{"Start":"11:14.105 ","End":"11:16.800","Text":"Thanks and see you in Part II."}],"ID":27029},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Energy Conversion part 2","Duration":"8m 55s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25721,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.975","Text":"Welcome back to energy conversion, Part II."},{"Start":"00:03.975 ","End":"00:08.370","Text":"In this section, we are going to understand homeostasis,"},{"Start":"00:08.370 ","End":"00:12.689","Text":"further explain the significance of energy conversion,"},{"Start":"00:12.689 ","End":"00:14.640","Text":"talk about reduction and oxidation,"},{"Start":"00:14.640 ","End":"00:20.235","Text":"and how it all relates to the cycling of energy."},{"Start":"00:20.235 ","End":"00:22.770","Text":"Autotrophs and heterotrophs are part of global cycles of"},{"Start":"00:22.770 ","End":"00:25.470","Text":"oxygen and carbon dioxide, O_2 and CO_2."},{"Start":"00:25.470 ","End":"00:27.945","Text":"These are driven ultimately by sunlight,"},{"Start":"00:27.945 ","End":"00:31.500","Text":"making these 2 vast groups of organisms interdependent."},{"Start":"00:31.500 ","End":"00:39.195","Text":"We said solar energy is directly or indirectly utilized by all organisms on Earth."},{"Start":"00:39.195 ","End":"00:40.740","Text":"We can look at the cycle here."},{"Start":"00:40.740 ","End":"00:42.197","Text":"We have light energy,"},{"Start":"00:42.197 ","End":"00:47.435","Text":"photosynthetic organisms have the chloroplast, the green organelle."},{"Start":"00:47.435 ","End":"00:49.685","Text":"This is what allows to do photosynthesis."},{"Start":"00:49.685 ","End":"00:53.315","Text":"It releases glucose, chemical energy,"},{"Start":"00:53.315 ","End":"00:56.930","Text":"and oxygen, which is needed for aerobic metabolism."},{"Start":"00:56.930 ","End":"00:58.850","Text":"The chemical energy is released,"},{"Start":"00:58.850 ","End":"01:00.800","Text":"mitochondria picks it up."},{"Start":"01:00.800 ","End":"01:02.674","Text":"It also takes in oxygen,"},{"Start":"01:02.674 ","End":"01:04.355","Text":"you have cell respiration,"},{"Start":"01:04.355 ","End":"01:07.010","Text":"carbon dioxide and water are released,"},{"Start":"01:07.010 ","End":"01:09.385","Text":"and then the cycle goes on."},{"Start":"01:09.385 ","End":"01:11.205","Text":"Once again, CO_2 and H_2O,"},{"Start":"01:11.205 ","End":"01:15.830","Text":"the mitochondria are released and aerobic respiration and cell respiration are then taken"},{"Start":"01:15.830 ","End":"01:20.990","Text":"up by photosynthetic organism with the light and [inaudible]."},{"Start":"01:20.990 ","End":"01:26.855","Text":"All the reactions involved in electron flow are oxidation reduction reactions."},{"Start":"01:26.855 ","End":"01:28.340","Text":"Now we\u0027re putting this together."},{"Start":"01:28.340 ","End":"01:30.110","Text":"We talked about oxidation reduction,"},{"Start":"01:30.110 ","End":"01:33.604","Text":"shorthand for both because they always go together is redox."},{"Start":"01:33.604 ","End":"01:37.795","Text":"These are key in electron flow,"},{"Start":"01:37.795 ","End":"01:41.030","Text":"and it is 1 reactant that is oxidized"},{"Start":"01:41.030 ","End":"01:44.675","Text":"loses electrons as another is reduced, gains electrons."},{"Start":"01:44.675 ","End":"01:46.489","Text":"Going back to the figure, remember,"},{"Start":"01:46.489 ","End":"01:48.305","Text":"you have A,"},{"Start":"01:48.305 ","End":"01:49.880","Text":"that is giving up electrons,"},{"Start":"01:49.880 ","End":"01:52.100","Text":"it\u0027s losing them, it\u0027s oxidized."},{"Start":"01:52.100 ","End":"01:54.259","Text":"The equivalent is gaining oxygen."},{"Start":"01:54.259 ","End":"01:59.790","Text":"B, that is gaining electrons or losing an oxygen."},{"Start":"01:59.790 ","End":"02:01.785","Text":"How can we remember this?"},{"Start":"02:01.785 ","End":"02:06.695","Text":"I\u0027m going to try to tell you how I can remember the terms and not get confused,"},{"Start":"02:06.695 ","End":"02:08.180","Text":"but you can find your own way."},{"Start":"02:08.180 ","End":"02:12.025","Text":"The way that I use is the electrons are negative."},{"Start":"02:12.025 ","End":"02:14.605","Text":"I mentioned for e,"},{"Start":"02:14.605 ","End":"02:16.974","Text":"with a minus, that stands for electron."},{"Start":"02:16.974 ","End":"02:18.514","Text":"So electrons are negatively charged,"},{"Start":"02:18.514 ","End":"02:21.935","Text":"thus gaining them means that there is a gain in negativity."},{"Start":"02:21.935 ","End":"02:25.760","Text":"In essence, it\u0027s a reduction because you\u0027ve gained negativity,"},{"Start":"02:25.760 ","End":"02:28.220","Text":"you\u0027ve been reduced, you\u0027ve become more negative."},{"Start":"02:28.220 ","End":"02:31.564","Text":"While to be oxidized is to lose electrons,"},{"Start":"02:31.564 ","End":"02:34.810","Text":"to lose something negative makes you more positive."},{"Start":"02:34.810 ","End":"02:36.290","Text":"If we just refer to it in life,"},{"Start":"02:36.290 ","End":"02:38.120","Text":"if things are more positive, it\u0027s better,"},{"Start":"02:38.120 ","End":"02:40.010","Text":"it\u0027s easier, it\u0027s like taking a breath of fresh air."},{"Start":"02:40.010 ","End":"02:41.435","Text":"It\u0027s like life is easier,"},{"Start":"02:41.435 ","End":"02:43.580","Text":"we\u0027ve got lots of oxygen we\u0027re breathing."},{"Start":"02:43.580 ","End":"02:45.335","Text":"That is the gain of oxygen."},{"Start":"02:45.335 ","End":"02:48.784","Text":"These have therefore been oxidized."},{"Start":"02:48.784 ","End":"02:52.955","Text":"Gain of electrons, which is loss of oxygen, is negative."},{"Start":"02:52.955 ","End":"02:57.065","Text":"You gain something negative and you lost oxygen, that ability to breath."},{"Start":"02:57.065 ","End":"02:58.610","Text":"Thus you\u0027ve been reduced."},{"Start":"02:58.610 ","End":"03:00.410","Text":"The loss of electrons,"},{"Start":"03:00.410 ","End":"03:05.960","Text":"the loss of something negative, or gaining oxygen."},{"Start":"03:05.960 ","End":"03:07.685","Text":"Again, loss of electrons,"},{"Start":"03:07.685 ","End":"03:09.875","Text":"something negative means you\u0027re more positive."},{"Start":"03:09.875 ","End":"03:12.080","Text":"Things are looking up, you\u0027ve been oxidized,"},{"Start":"03:12.080 ","End":"03:14.060","Text":"you gained more oxygen to breathe."},{"Start":"03:14.060 ","End":"03:16.535","Text":"Hopefully, this helps remember the terms."},{"Start":"03:16.535 ","End":"03:20.765","Text":"How does this all come together and what is the significance?"},{"Start":"03:20.765 ","End":"03:25.015","Text":"Energy conversion in living systems is required for 3 types of work."},{"Start":"03:25.015 ","End":"03:28.850","Text":"Osmotic work. This is something we haven\u0027t talked about."},{"Start":"03:28.850 ","End":"03:30.320","Text":"This is in the form of maintaining"},{"Start":"03:30.320 ","End":"03:35.165","Text":"differential solute concentrations across biological membranes."},{"Start":"03:35.165 ","End":"03:41.165","Text":"This means concentration of aqueous solutions,"},{"Start":"03:41.165 ","End":"03:43.429","Text":"as we talked about in the cell, there\u0027s cytoplasm,"},{"Start":"03:43.429 ","End":"03:44.855","Text":"which is an aqueous solution,"},{"Start":"03:44.855 ","End":"03:48.905","Text":"and it\u0027s different from the content from aqueous solution that is between cells."},{"Start":"03:48.905 ","End":"03:50.630","Text":"This can also be the nucleus."},{"Start":"03:50.630 ","End":"03:52.475","Text":"We have the nucleus that has a membrane,"},{"Start":"03:52.475 ","End":"03:57.230","Text":"and the nucleus has a different solution a little bit than the cytoplasm."},{"Start":"03:57.230 ","End":"04:01.490","Text":"This concentrated solutions is different,"},{"Start":"04:01.490 ","End":"04:03.320","Text":"the 2 sides of the barrier."},{"Start":"04:03.320 ","End":"04:05.960","Text":"This is where osmotic work comes into play."},{"Start":"04:05.960 ","End":"04:08.630","Text":"If you\u0027re looking here, you have a membrane,"},{"Start":"04:08.630 ","End":"04:13.325","Text":"and then there\u0027s a transformer or a sodium potassium pump,"},{"Start":"04:13.325 ","End":"04:16.189","Text":"and what you have inside is different."},{"Start":"04:16.189 ","End":"04:20.795","Text":"The concentration of sodium and potassium within the cell is different."},{"Start":"04:20.795 ","End":"04:22.445","Text":"This is osmotic work."},{"Start":"04:22.445 ","End":"04:26.900","Text":"The second type of work that energy conversion is needed for,"},{"Start":"04:26.900 ","End":"04:28.820","Text":"is chemical work, and this we covered."},{"Start":"04:28.820 ","End":"04:32.210","Text":"This is in the form of biosynthesis and degradation of organic molecules,"},{"Start":"04:32.210 ","End":"04:34.760","Text":"meaning the synthesis of biomolecules and their breakdown."},{"Start":"04:34.760 ","End":"04:36.049","Text":"Remember we talked about biomolecule,"},{"Start":"04:36.049 ","End":"04:37.258","Text":"these can be polymers."},{"Start":"04:37.258 ","End":"04:40.119","Text":"When they\u0027re broken down into, for example,"},{"Start":"04:40.119 ","End":"04:42.620","Text":"monomers, these more simple molecules,"},{"Start":"04:42.620 ","End":"04:44.360","Text":"there is a release of energy."},{"Start":"04:44.360 ","End":"04:47.225","Text":"While to synthesize polymers from monomers,"},{"Start":"04:47.225 ","End":"04:49.160","Text":"you need to invest energy,"},{"Start":"04:49.160 ","End":"04:50.735","Text":"ATP into the synthesis."},{"Start":"04:50.735 ","End":"04:52.085","Text":"This is metabolism."},{"Start":"04:52.085 ","End":"04:56.509","Text":"We actually introduced also the terms catabolism and anabolism."},{"Start":"04:56.509 ","End":"05:00.665","Text":"Catabolism is degradation and anabolism is synthesis."},{"Start":"05:00.665 ","End":"05:04.685","Text":"Chemical work in the form of biosynthesis and degradation of biomolecules is"},{"Start":"05:04.685 ","End":"05:09.890","Text":"the second type of work that energy conversion is essential for."},{"Start":"05:09.890 ","End":"05:12.680","Text":"The third term is mechanical work."},{"Start":"05:12.680 ","End":"05:15.200","Text":"This is in the form of muscle contractions in animals;"},{"Start":"05:15.200 ","End":"05:17.465","Text":"movement, physical activity."},{"Start":"05:17.465 ","End":"05:21.690","Text":"Basically, we need energy in order to do any physical activity."},{"Start":"05:21.690 ","End":"05:23.330","Text":"If you haven\u0027t eaten in days,"},{"Start":"05:23.330 ","End":"05:26.105","Text":"you will not have energy to go do a marathon."},{"Start":"05:26.105 ","End":"05:27.440","Text":"You need to eat."},{"Start":"05:27.440 ","End":"05:35.535","Text":"That is the chemical energy that us humans or animals as chemotrophs consume."},{"Start":"05:35.535 ","End":"05:40.175","Text":"We have energy conversion is required for 3 types of work,"},{"Start":"05:40.175 ","End":"05:43.495","Text":"osmotic work, chemical work and mechanical work."},{"Start":"05:43.495 ","End":"05:44.885","Text":"Looking at this way,"},{"Start":"05:44.885 ","End":"05:46.445","Text":"you have solar energy."},{"Start":"05:46.445 ","End":"05:48.590","Text":"You have the photosynthetic organisms that utilize"},{"Start":"05:48.590 ","End":"05:51.230","Text":"the solar energy to create chemical energy, the glucose."},{"Start":"05:51.230 ","End":"05:56.960","Text":"The glucose is then used to do osmotic work and maintain the concentration"},{"Start":"05:56.960 ","End":"05:59.675","Text":"of solutions across membranes to do chemical work"},{"Start":"05:59.675 ","End":"06:02.840","Text":"which is needed for metabolism and aerobic respiration,"},{"Start":"06:02.840 ","End":"06:08.285","Text":"and to do mechanical work in the form of muscle contractions, movements, etc."},{"Start":"06:08.285 ","End":"06:10.760","Text":"Reiterating the point that living organisms need"},{"Start":"06:10.760 ","End":"06:13.655","Text":"a constant input of energy in order to live,"},{"Start":"06:13.655 ","End":"06:16.520","Text":"this is because life depends on maintaining"},{"Start":"06:16.520 ","End":"06:20.840","Text":"a highly ordered steady-state called homeostasis, which requires energy."},{"Start":"06:20.840 ","End":"06:22.550","Text":"When we talked about the steady-state,"},{"Start":"06:22.550 ","End":"06:24.470","Text":"in order to maintain a steady state,"},{"Start":"06:24.470 ","End":"06:27.695","Text":"constant energy needs to be invested."},{"Start":"06:27.695 ","End":"06:31.700","Text":"When there\u0027s no more energy to maintain the steady-state, what did we say?"},{"Start":"06:31.700 ","End":"06:33.635","Text":"The organism actually will die."},{"Start":"06:33.635 ","End":"06:37.766","Text":"It will start going towards equilibrium with it\u0027s environment."},{"Start":"06:37.766 ","End":"06:39.365","Text":"Now we\u0027re introducing this term,"},{"Start":"06:39.365 ","End":"06:42.020","Text":"homeostasis, which requires energy."},{"Start":"06:42.020 ","End":"06:45.185","Text":"This is the idea of a steady-state."},{"Start":"06:45.185 ","End":"06:49.670","Text":"Homeostasis actually originates from Greek."},{"Start":"06:49.670 ","End":"06:51.890","Text":"We are constantly going back to the Greek language."},{"Start":"06:51.890 ","End":"06:54.230","Text":"We have homeo, it means similar,"},{"Start":"06:54.230 ","End":"06:57.455","Text":"and stasis, means standing still."},{"Start":"06:57.455 ","End":"07:03.170","Text":"The idea is that homeostasis results in staying the same."},{"Start":"07:03.170 ","End":"07:05.990","Text":"Let\u0027s think about you going out into"},{"Start":"07:05.990 ","End":"07:09.125","Text":"the desert in the Middle East and it\u0027s 42 degrees outside."},{"Start":"07:09.125 ","End":"07:14.730","Text":"Our body will maintain a temperature that will be below, hopefully,"},{"Start":"07:14.730 ","End":"07:16.925","Text":"38 degrees or 37,"},{"Start":"07:16.925 ","End":"07:19.820","Text":"because if we get to 42 degrees,"},{"Start":"07:19.820 ","End":"07:20.930","Text":"it means we have a fever."},{"Start":"07:20.930 ","End":"07:22.490","Text":"This is detrimental to us."},{"Start":"07:22.490 ","End":"07:25.685","Text":"Even though our surrounding has 42 degrees,"},{"Start":"07:25.685 ","End":"07:29.240","Text":"our body will maintain a lower temperature."},{"Start":"07:29.240 ","End":"07:32.750","Text":"That is what we call homeostasis."},{"Start":"07:32.750 ","End":"07:36.020","Text":"In order to do that, our body actually has to work by"},{"Start":"07:36.020 ","End":"07:40.400","Text":"cooling our body down in relation to the environment."},{"Start":"07:40.400 ","End":"07:45.875","Text":"It can be said that the fundamental reason all living organisms need an input of energy,"},{"Start":"07:45.875 ","End":"07:49.850","Text":"it\u0027s to delay reaching equilibrium with the environment."},{"Start":"07:49.850 ","End":"07:52.955","Text":"As we said in the previous section,"},{"Start":"07:52.955 ","End":"07:57.200","Text":"an organism in equilibrium with it\u0027s environment is no longer alive."},{"Start":"07:57.200 ","End":"08:01.835","Text":"In order to survive, organisms must maintain a steady state with respect to temperature,"},{"Start":"08:01.835 ","End":"08:03.740","Text":"concentrations of biomolecules,"},{"Start":"08:03.740 ","End":"08:06.380","Text":"and other parameters that are far from equilibrium."},{"Start":"08:06.380 ","End":"08:09.215","Text":"The minute organism is reaching equilibrium,"},{"Start":"08:09.215 ","End":"08:11.719","Text":"it\u0027s basically lost it\u0027s viability,"},{"Start":"08:11.719 ","End":"08:13.295","Text":"and is no longer alive."},{"Start":"08:13.295 ","End":"08:16.220","Text":"When an organism can no longer maintain"},{"Start":"08:16.220 ","End":"08:19.820","Text":"homeostasis using energy conversion processes to perform work,"},{"Start":"08:19.820 ","End":"08:21.380","Text":"osmotic work, mechanical work,"},{"Start":"08:21.380 ","End":"08:24.050","Text":"chemical work, the intracellular concentration of water,"},{"Start":"08:24.050 ","End":"08:26.510","Text":"essential ions and macromolecules begin to"},{"Start":"08:26.510 ","End":"08:29.720","Text":"equilibrate with the surroundings and the organism dies."},{"Start":"08:29.720 ","End":"08:35.180","Text":"With that we actually finish Part II and the entire section of energy conversion."},{"Start":"08:35.180 ","End":"08:38.525","Text":"We used terms that we introduced previously."},{"Start":"08:38.525 ","End":"08:40.700","Text":"We also introduced different terms that"},{"Start":"08:40.700 ","End":"08:43.610","Text":"relate to the same concepts and brought it altogether,"},{"Start":"08:43.610 ","End":"08:47.720","Text":"and described energy conversion and it\u0027s significance,"},{"Start":"08:47.720 ","End":"08:50.210","Text":"defined reduction and oxidation, redox reactions,"},{"Start":"08:50.210 ","End":"08:53.345","Text":"and we should be able to understand homeostasis."},{"Start":"08:53.345 ","End":"08:56.820","Text":"Thank you. Let\u0027s dive into the exercises."}],"ID":27030},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 4","Duration":"1m 22s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25722,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.135","Text":"We are in the section of Physical Foundation covering the topic"},{"Start":"00:03.135 ","End":"00:06.645","Text":"of energy conversion and we are going to go into an exercise."},{"Start":"00:06.645 ","End":"00:09.630","Text":"What are photosynthetic organisms?"},{"Start":"00:09.630 ","End":"00:11.895","Text":"Photo, synthetic."},{"Start":"00:11.895 ","End":"00:14.505","Text":"Photo and synthesizing."},{"Start":"00:14.505 ","End":"00:16.740","Text":"Photo, light."},{"Start":"00:16.740 ","End":"00:19.545","Text":"Remember we covered this in a previous section."},{"Start":"00:19.545 ","End":"00:22.650","Text":"Photosynthetic organisms are organisms that utilize"},{"Start":"00:22.650 ","End":"00:25.425","Text":"solar energy and convert it to chemical energy."},{"Start":"00:25.425 ","End":"00:28.740","Text":"You have light from the sun, solar energy."},{"Start":"00:28.740 ","End":"00:33.285","Text":"Phototrophs are organisms that utilize the sun."},{"Start":"00:33.285 ","End":"00:39.300","Text":"Then you have organisms that can utilize also carbon dioxide from the environment,"},{"Start":"00:39.300 ","End":"00:45.695","Text":"and in essence, these are photoautotrophs and release oxygen and glucose,"},{"Start":"00:45.695 ","End":"00:48.170","Text":"for example, plants and cyanobacteria."},{"Start":"00:48.170 ","End":"00:50.990","Text":"Photosynthetic organisms are organisms that utilize"},{"Start":"00:50.990 ","End":"00:54.155","Text":"solar energy and convert it to chemical energy."},{"Start":"00:54.155 ","End":"00:56.660","Text":"They use this chemical energy to sustain life during"},{"Start":"00:56.660 ","End":"01:01.805","Text":"daylight hours and to produce carbohydrates from CO_2."},{"Start":"01:01.805 ","End":"01:05.870","Text":"This can then be stored as metabolic fuel for use at night."},{"Start":"01:05.870 ","End":"01:11.870","Text":"So this chemical energy that it produced during the day in photosynthesis can now"},{"Start":"01:11.870 ","End":"01:14.780","Text":"be utilized at night when there\u0027s no solar energy for"},{"Start":"01:14.780 ","End":"01:18.260","Text":"continuation of processes that require energy."},{"Start":"01:18.260 ","End":"01:22.980","Text":"There we are with the first exercise of energy conversion."}],"ID":27031},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 5","Duration":"4m 21s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25723,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.435","Text":"Welcome back to another exercise in"},{"Start":"00:03.435 ","End":"00:07.694","Text":"the topic of energy conversion within Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.694 ","End":"00:13.995","Text":"Part 1, define reduction and oxidation and the reaction known as redox."},{"Start":"00:13.995 ","End":"00:17.310","Text":"Reduction is the loss of oxygen atoms from"},{"Start":"00:17.310 ","End":"00:20.865","Text":"a molecule or the gaining of 1 or more electrons."},{"Start":"00:20.865 ","End":"00:24.225","Text":"The process referred to as a reduction,"},{"Start":"00:24.225 ","End":"00:28.110","Text":"generally means a reaction in which electrons are added to a compound."},{"Start":"00:28.110 ","End":"00:31.620","Text":"A compound that gains electrons is said to be reduced."},{"Start":"00:31.620 ","End":"00:33.210","Text":"If we\u0027re looking at this figure,"},{"Start":"00:33.210 ","End":"00:34.830","Text":"you have A,"},{"Start":"00:34.830 ","End":"00:37.665","Text":"has electrons, it\u0027s lost its electrons,"},{"Start":"00:37.665 ","End":"00:39.585","Text":"it goes through oxidation."},{"Start":"00:39.585 ","End":"00:44.270","Text":"This loss of electrons is oxidation while it can also mean"},{"Start":"00:44.270 ","End":"00:50.070","Text":"gain of B is going through reduction."},{"Start":"00:50.070 ","End":"00:51.725","Text":"You see here reduction."},{"Start":"00:51.725 ","End":"00:53.630","Text":"Reduction is gain of electrons."},{"Start":"00:53.630 ","End":"00:58.440","Text":"You have electrons gained and actually gained these electrons from A."},{"Start":"00:58.440 ","End":"01:01.310","Text":"This gain of electrons is reduction."},{"Start":"01:01.310 ","End":"01:07.535","Text":"Oxidation is the gain of oxygen from a molecule or the loss of 1 or more electrons."},{"Start":"01:07.535 ","End":"01:09.590","Text":"You have electrons A."},{"Start":"01:09.590 ","End":"01:11.540","Text":"It\u0027s lost the electrons."},{"Start":"01:11.540 ","End":"01:13.775","Text":"Therefore, it went through oxidation."},{"Start":"01:13.775 ","End":"01:17.825","Text":"It\u0027s been oxidized or it\u0027s gained oxidant."},{"Start":"01:17.825 ","End":"01:22.135","Text":"The full reaction is known as a redox reaction."},{"Start":"01:22.135 ","End":"01:26.200","Text":"It goes together because these go hand in hand."},{"Start":"01:26.200 ","End":"01:28.645","Text":"It will always go with 1 and the other."},{"Start":"01:28.645 ","End":"01:32.980","Text":"1 will be a reducing agent and 1 will be an oxidizing agent."},{"Start":"01:32.980 ","End":"01:36.420","Text":"1 will be oxidized, 1 will be reduced."},{"Start":"01:36.420 ","End":"01:40.960","Text":"1 will be gaining electrons that the other 1 gave electrons."},{"Start":"01:40.960 ","End":"01:44.455","Text":"1 will be gaining oxygen that the other 1 released."},{"Start":"01:44.455 ","End":"01:48.700","Text":"Part 2, how are redox reactions relevant to the energy cycle?"},{"Start":"01:48.700 ","End":"01:50.740","Text":"This is where we put things together."},{"Start":"01:50.740 ","End":"01:53.170","Text":"Organisms that utilize solar energy and"},{"Start":"01:53.170 ","End":"01:56.275","Text":"convert it to chemical energy through photosynthesis."},{"Start":"01:56.275 ","End":"01:57.970","Text":"Photoautotrophs,"},{"Start":"01:57.970 ","End":"02:03.660","Text":"photosynthetic organisms utilize CO_2 and release O_2 to the environment."},{"Start":"02:03.660 ","End":"02:08.095","Text":"You have light, the utilization of CO_2 and water,"},{"Start":"02:08.095 ","End":"02:10.900","Text":"and then you have the release of glucose and oxygen."},{"Start":"02:10.900 ","End":"02:15.255","Text":"During photosynthesis splits water H_2O and reduces carbon dioxide,"},{"Start":"02:15.255 ","End":"02:18.355","Text":"CO_2 resulting in the release of O_2 into the atmosphere."},{"Start":"02:18.355 ","End":"02:20.920","Text":"You have H_2O, this is split."},{"Start":"02:20.920 ","End":"02:23.950","Text":"What happens is you have oxygen."},{"Start":"02:23.950 ","End":"02:29.080","Text":"If you have 6 oxygens here and you have 12 hydrogens,"},{"Start":"02:29.080 ","End":"02:32.120","Text":"these 12 hydrogens come here."},{"Start":"02:32.120 ","End":"02:37.449","Text":"Then here you have 6 carbons and"},{"Start":"02:37.449 ","End":"02:44.640","Text":"12 oxygens so 6 carbons and 12 oxygens."},{"Start":"02:44.640 ","End":"02:48.960","Text":"This H_2 that was split now has"},{"Start":"02:48.960 ","End":"02:55.990","Text":"a reducing effect on carbon dioxide but it\u0027s taking oxygens away or giving electrons."},{"Start":"02:55.990 ","End":"02:58.540","Text":"In this case, let\u0027s say it\u0027s taking oxygens away."},{"Start":"02:58.540 ","End":"03:01.930","Text":"It\u0027s actually taking half of the oxygens here,"},{"Start":"03:01.930 ","End":"03:05.175","Text":"6 of them over here,"},{"Start":"03:05.175 ","End":"03:11.310","Text":"and what you end up having is 6 atmospheric oxygen molecules."},{"Start":"03:11.310 ","End":"03:14.175","Text":"Well, now you have 6 carbons,"},{"Start":"03:14.175 ","End":"03:18.635","Text":"12 hydrogens, and 6 oxygens."},{"Start":"03:18.635 ","End":"03:24.670","Text":"Remember we talked about that from the ratio of 2 to 1 oxygen to carbon of CO_2."},{"Start":"03:24.670 ","End":"03:27.865","Text":"Now we have a ratio of 1 to 1 of oxygen to carbon,"},{"Start":"03:27.865 ","End":"03:30.160","Text":"and we have a 2 to 1 ratio with hydrogen,"},{"Start":"03:30.160 ","End":"03:33.143","Text":"and we have here the 12 molecules of oxygen."},{"Start":"03:33.143 ","End":"03:36.890","Text":"While chemotrophs obtain the energy we need by oxidizing"},{"Start":"03:36.890 ","End":"03:40.788","Text":"the energy rich products of photosynthesis stored in plants,"},{"Start":"03:40.788 ","End":"03:44.900","Text":"utilizing this along with atmospheric oxygen, they form water,"},{"Start":"03:44.900 ","End":"03:49.865","Text":"CO_2, and other end-products which are then recycled in the environment."},{"Start":"03:49.865 ","End":"03:52.640","Text":"You have chemotrophs."},{"Start":"03:52.640 ","End":"03:58.910","Text":"They obtain energy and glucose from the photosynthetic process."},{"Start":"03:58.910 ","End":"04:00.365","Text":"They have cell respiration,"},{"Start":"04:00.365 ","End":"04:05.870","Text":"it\u0027s also aerobic respiration because it uses oxygen and it releases CO_2"},{"Start":"04:05.870 ","End":"04:11.435","Text":"and water which then is taken up by the photosynthetic organisms along with solar energy,"},{"Start":"04:11.435 ","End":"04:14.420","Text":"light energy, radiation energy to"},{"Start":"04:14.420 ","End":"04:18.355","Text":"continue with the cycle of releasing glucose and oxygen into the environment."},{"Start":"04:18.355 ","End":"04:22.320","Text":"That is the second exercise with an energy conversion."}],"ID":27032},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 6","Duration":"1m 41s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25713,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.460","Text":"Welcome back to another exercise within"},{"Start":"00:02.460 ","End":"00:05.880","Text":"Energy Conversion within the concepts of Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:05.880 ","End":"00:08.430","Text":"Energy conversion in living systems is required for,"},{"Start":"00:08.430 ","End":"00:10.020","Text":"what 3 types of work?"},{"Start":"00:10.020 ","End":"00:11.745","Text":"We talked about 3 types of work."},{"Start":"00:11.745 ","End":"00:16.019","Text":"If you remember the figure of which 1 of them we\u0027ve covered before,"},{"Start":"00:16.019 ","End":"00:19.875","Text":"and 2, we introduced as new concepts."},{"Start":"00:19.875 ","End":"00:22.670","Text":"We have osmotic work in the form of maintaining"},{"Start":"00:22.670 ","End":"00:26.315","Text":"the concentrations of solutions across biological membranes."},{"Start":"00:26.315 ","End":"00:27.738","Text":"Remember, we have membranes."},{"Start":"00:27.738 ","End":"00:29.150","Text":"What is the aqueous solution?"},{"Start":"00:29.150 ","End":"00:31.130","Text":"The cytoplasm, for example, in the cell,"},{"Start":"00:31.130 ","End":"00:34.670","Text":"is different from what is within the nucleus because the nucleus"},{"Start":"00:34.670 ","End":"00:39.140","Text":"also has a membrane which is different the cytoplasm for what is outside the cell."},{"Start":"00:39.140 ","End":"00:46.160","Text":"Osmotic work, this is the energy that this pump needs in order to move"},{"Start":"00:46.160 ","End":"00:50.030","Text":"these molecules across the membrane to"},{"Start":"00:50.030 ","End":"00:54.440","Text":"maintain the correct concentration of solutions across the membranes."},{"Start":"00:54.440 ","End":"00:57.140","Text":"Chemical work in the form of synthesis and degradation"},{"Start":"00:57.140 ","End":"00:59.795","Text":"of biomolecules, this is metabolism."},{"Start":"00:59.795 ","End":"01:03.834","Text":"We\u0027ve talked about this in previous sections so, basically,"},{"Start":"01:03.834 ","End":"01:10.589","Text":"it\u0027s the degradation or synthesis of biomolecules versus molecules,"},{"Start":"01:10.589 ","End":"01:13.580","Text":"it\u0027s polymers versus monomers,"},{"Start":"01:13.580 ","End":"01:15.425","Text":"it\u0027s anabolism and catabolism."},{"Start":"01:15.425 ","End":"01:20.600","Text":"Catabolism is the degradation of larger biomolecules,"},{"Start":"01:20.600 ","End":"01:25.475","Text":"macromolecules, and anabolism is the synthesis of macromolecules or polymers."},{"Start":"01:25.475 ","End":"01:28.310","Text":"The third type of work is mechanical work,"},{"Start":"01:28.310 ","End":"01:31.790","Text":"and this is in the form of muscle contractions in animal: movement, physical activity."},{"Start":"01:31.790 ","End":"01:33.230","Text":"Our ability to lift things,"},{"Start":"01:33.230 ","End":"01:36.620","Text":"to do things to function is from energy."},{"Start":"01:36.620 ","End":"01:42.120","Text":"That is covering the required energy conversion within Physical Foundation."}],"ID":27033},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 7","Duration":"1m 50s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25714,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.720","Text":"Hi there. We\u0027re testing our knowledge in"},{"Start":"00:03.720 ","End":"00:07.740","Text":"section of physical foundation covering the topic of energy conversion."},{"Start":"00:07.740 ","End":"00:12.839","Text":"What is the term used to define a highly ordered steady-state which requires energy,"},{"Start":"00:12.839 ","End":"00:17.130","Text":"and is maintained by living organisms and what does it stem from?"},{"Start":"00:17.130 ","End":"00:19.920","Text":"We talked about the dynamic steady-state in previous sections,"},{"Start":"00:19.920 ","End":"00:23.925","Text":"but this time we introduced a new term."},{"Start":"00:23.925 ","End":"00:27.240","Text":"That term is homeostasis."},{"Start":"00:27.240 ","End":"00:29.210","Text":"Remember from Greek,"},{"Start":"00:29.210 ","End":"00:31.160","Text":"we have homeo, and stasis."},{"Start":"00:31.160 ","End":"00:35.239","Text":"The word homeostasis stems from the Greek term homeo similar,"},{"Start":"00:35.239 ","End":"00:37.655","Text":"and stasis, standing still."},{"Start":"00:37.655 ","End":"00:40.895","Text":"Something that is standing still and stay similar."},{"Start":"00:40.895 ","End":"00:45.220","Text":"The idea that result is of staying the same."},{"Start":"00:45.220 ","End":"00:51.590","Text":"We gave an example of the fact that organisms need to maintain a homeostasis,"},{"Start":"00:51.590 ","End":"00:53.614","Text":"for example of temperature."},{"Start":"00:53.614 ","End":"00:58.385","Text":"Even though you may be in an environment where the temperature is freezing,"},{"Start":"00:58.385 ","End":"01:00.065","Text":"the 0 degrees,"},{"Start":"01:00.065 ","End":"01:03.460","Text":"or minus 10 degrees Celsius,"},{"Start":"01:03.460 ","End":"01:05.195","Text":"we cannot let our bodies freeze."},{"Start":"01:05.195 ","End":"01:06.875","Text":"If our cells freeze,"},{"Start":"01:06.875 ","End":"01:08.660","Text":"the water freeze, they will explode."},{"Start":"01:08.660 ","End":"01:13.145","Text":"Our body needs to find a way to maintain our normal temperature,"},{"Start":"01:13.145 ","End":"01:14.840","Text":"that is 36.7,"},{"Start":"01:14.840 ","End":"01:17.780","Text":"or less than 37 but we need to not let it drop"},{"Start":"01:17.780 ","End":"01:21.365","Text":"below that too much because that is detrimental."},{"Start":"01:21.365 ","End":"01:23.525","Text":"Our body needs to invest energy,"},{"Start":"01:23.525 ","End":"01:25.700","Text":"in order to maintain the temperature."},{"Start":"01:25.700 ","End":"01:27.725","Text":"That\u0027s when you\u0027re cold, you start shivering."},{"Start":"01:27.725 ","End":"01:29.060","Text":"That\u0027s because that movement,"},{"Start":"01:29.060 ","End":"01:36.244","Text":"those muscle contractions are the utilization of energy that results in release of heat."},{"Start":"01:36.244 ","End":"01:40.625","Text":"The utilization of energy is needed in order to maintain"},{"Start":"01:40.625 ","End":"01:45.825","Text":"the very critical homeostasis of living organisms."},{"Start":"01:45.825 ","End":"01:51.300","Text":"That is the exercise relating to homeostasis in energy conversion."}],"ID":27034},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 8","Duration":"1m 44s","ChapterTopicVideoID":25715,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.320 ","End":"00:05.684","Text":"We have an exercise regarding energy conversion and physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:05.684 ","End":"00:10.080","Text":"What can you say about an organism that is in equilibrium with its environment?"},{"Start":"00:10.080 ","End":"00:12.525","Text":"Now if you remember, we covered this in the previous section."},{"Start":"00:12.525 ","End":"00:17.535","Text":"We\u0027re reiterating this and we\u0027ve tied a few concepts and terms together."},{"Start":"00:17.535 ","End":"00:20.565","Text":"The organism is no longer alive."},{"Start":"00:20.565 ","End":"00:25.680","Text":"An organism that has reached equilibrium with its environment is no longer alive."},{"Start":"00:25.680 ","End":"00:27.480","Text":"Since it is unable to maintain"},{"Start":"00:27.480 ","End":"00:32.430","Text":"a steady-state homeostasis by utilizing energy conversion processes to perform work,"},{"Start":"00:32.430 ","End":"00:35.700","Text":"the intracellular concentrations of water, essential ions,"},{"Start":"00:35.700 ","End":"00:40.005","Text":"and macromolecules begin to equilibrium with the surroundings and the organism dies."},{"Start":"00:40.005 ","End":"00:44.530","Text":"Remember we talked about osmotic work water."},{"Start":"00:44.530 ","End":"00:47.930","Text":"We talked about the osmotic work is"},{"Start":"00:47.930 ","End":"00:51.170","Text":"basically maintaining the concentration of solutions across"},{"Start":"00:51.170 ","End":"00:58.054","Text":"membranes in a way that it keeps it different across the two membranes."},{"Start":"00:58.054 ","End":"01:04.700","Text":"You have macromolecules that need to be either broken down or synthesized,"},{"Start":"01:04.700 ","End":"01:06.125","Text":"degraded or synthesized,"},{"Start":"01:06.125 ","End":"01:12.725","Text":"that is the metabolic work that we need, the chemical work."},{"Start":"01:12.725 ","End":"01:17.060","Text":"We have the mechanical work that is the functioning and"},{"Start":"01:17.060 ","End":"01:21.935","Text":"the contractions of cells that are also needed."},{"Start":"01:21.935 ","End":"01:26.045","Text":"All this is needed and relies on energy conversion."},{"Start":"01:26.045 ","End":"01:29.270","Text":"Once this breaks down because there is no energy and there"},{"Start":"01:29.270 ","End":"01:33.290","Text":"is no homeostasis that\u0027s being maintained, no steady-state,"},{"Start":"01:33.290 ","End":"01:38.735","Text":"there will be a slow advancements"},{"Start":"01:38.735 ","End":"01:45.060","Text":"towards equilibrium with the surrounding and the organism dies. Let\u0027s move on."}],"ID":27035},{"Watched":false,"Name":"The Laws of Thermodynamics part 1","Duration":"9m 37s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26148,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.090","Text":"This lesson is within the topic of"},{"Start":"00:03.090 ","End":"00:07.425","Text":"Physical Foundation and we\u0027re going to learn about the Laws of Thermodynamics."},{"Start":"00:07.425 ","End":"00:08.670","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:08.670 ","End":"00:13.035","Text":"you\u0027ll be able to define a system and list the 3 different types of systems,"},{"Start":"00:13.035 ","End":"00:16.103","Text":"list and explain the first and second laws of thermodynamics,"},{"Start":"00:16.103 ","End":"00:18.525","Text":"and discuss the concept of entropy."},{"Start":"00:18.525 ","End":"00:21.240","Text":"We\u0027re going to split this lesson into 2 parts where"},{"Start":"00:21.240 ","End":"00:23.865","Text":"we are going to cover within the first part,"},{"Start":"00:23.865 ","End":"00:27.390","Text":"the topics in which you should be able at the end to understand"},{"Start":"00:27.390 ","End":"00:30.930","Text":"the terms relating to thermochemistry and thermodynamics,"},{"Start":"00:30.930 ","End":"00:33.380","Text":"define a system and list the 3 different types,"},{"Start":"00:33.380 ","End":"00:35.570","Text":"and describe a biological system."},{"Start":"00:35.570 ","End":"00:38.630","Text":"Biological processes follow the same universal laws and"},{"Start":"00:38.630 ","End":"00:41.750","Text":"thermodynamic principles that govern physical processes."},{"Start":"00:41.750 ","End":"00:46.610","Text":"The word thermodynamics stems from the Greek term therme,"},{"Start":"00:46.610 ","End":"00:50.615","Text":"which means heat and dynamis, power."},{"Start":"00:50.615 ","End":"00:54.725","Text":"It\u0027s the power from heat, thermodynamics."},{"Start":"00:54.725 ","End":"00:57.200","Text":"Let\u0027s start with some basic terminology."},{"Start":"00:57.200 ","End":"00:58.705","Text":"Thermochemistry."},{"Start":"00:58.705 ","End":"01:02.120","Text":"Thermo, again comes from the word heat and chemistry."},{"Start":"01:02.120 ","End":"01:04.415","Text":"It\u0027s part of the branch of thermodynamics."},{"Start":"01:04.415 ","End":"01:08.210","Text":"It is the branch of chemistry concerned with the quantities of heat"},{"Start":"01:08.210 ","End":"01:12.380","Text":"absorbed or produced in chemical reactions or physical change of state."},{"Start":"01:12.380 ","End":"01:13.820","Text":"Again, I\u0027ll repeat this."},{"Start":"01:13.820 ","End":"01:16.730","Text":"It is the branch of chemistry concerned with the quantities of heat"},{"Start":"01:16.730 ","End":"01:20.825","Text":"absorbed or produced in chemical reactants or physical change of state."},{"Start":"01:20.825 ","End":"01:23.780","Text":"We then have thermodynamics."},{"Start":"01:23.780 ","End":"01:27.290","Text":"This is the branch of physical science that deals with"},{"Start":"01:27.290 ","End":"01:30.920","Text":"heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work."},{"Start":"01:30.920 ","End":"01:37.525","Text":"In other words, it is the study of energy and energy transfer involving physical matter."},{"Start":"01:37.525 ","End":"01:41.820","Text":"Examples from thermochemistry are,"},{"Start":"01:41.820 ","End":"01:45.620","Text":"when alcohol is rubbed on your skin, it evaporates."},{"Start":"01:45.620 ","End":"01:49.235","Text":"You spray it on and it\u0027s wet and it just dries up."},{"Start":"01:49.235 ","End":"01:52.820","Text":"It changes its state from liquid to gas and"},{"Start":"01:52.820 ","End":"01:57.200","Text":"absorbs heat in the process so that your skin is colder."},{"Start":"01:57.200 ","End":"02:00.544","Text":"When you\u0027re spraying or putting alcohol on your skin"},{"Start":"02:00.544 ","End":"02:04.400","Text":"and the liquid that you\u0027re spraying on evaporates,"},{"Start":"02:04.400 ","End":"02:08.330","Text":"it becomes gas and in that process, it absorbs energy,"},{"Start":"02:08.330 ","End":"02:10.400","Text":"it absorbs heat, and what happens,"},{"Start":"02:10.400 ","End":"02:13.940","Text":"it absorbs heat from your skin and your skin is colder."},{"Start":"02:13.940 ","End":"02:18.275","Text":"Another example, when certain specific chemicals are mixed together in a beaker,"},{"Start":"02:18.275 ","End":"02:20.855","Text":"the reaction between them results in release of heat."},{"Start":"02:20.855 ","End":"02:23.450","Text":"Thus, the beaker becomes very hot."},{"Start":"02:23.450 ","End":"02:27.830","Text":"I\u0027m sure in Chemistry class you\u0027ve mixed a few different chemicals"},{"Start":"02:27.830 ","End":"02:32.990","Text":"and if it\u0027s a metal with water and they become very hot."},{"Start":"02:32.990 ","End":"02:36.940","Text":"This is another example of thermochemistry."},{"Start":"02:36.940 ","End":"02:41.310","Text":"If you\u0027re mixing, for example, NaOH,"},{"Start":"02:41.310 ","End":"02:44.535","Text":"an aqueous solution with HCl,"},{"Start":"02:44.535 ","End":"02:46.110","Text":"an aqueous solution,"},{"Start":"02:46.110 ","End":"02:52.290","Text":"so a basic and an acidic solution in a beaker,"},{"Start":"02:52.290 ","End":"02:56.160","Text":"the reaction between them results in the release of heat."},{"Start":"02:56.920 ","End":"03:02.830","Text":"NaOH, sodium hydroxide, an aqueous in solution."},{"Start":"03:02.830 ","End":"03:05.820","Text":"This is basic."},{"Start":"03:05.820 ","End":"03:12.984","Text":"It\u0027s a base and you add this to the acid, hydrochloride, HCl,"},{"Start":"03:12.984 ","End":"03:20.930","Text":"also aqueous, this means that these are in solution."},{"Start":"03:20.930 ","End":"03:22.760","Text":"They\u0027re in a liquid, leave at that."},{"Start":"03:22.760 ","End":"03:24.545","Text":"This is also a solution,"},{"Start":"03:24.545 ","End":"03:26.975","Text":"but it is an acid."},{"Start":"03:26.975 ","End":"03:30.350","Text":"When mixing this base plus acid,"},{"Start":"03:30.350 ","End":"03:35.570","Text":"you get heat which means energy and fuel."},{"Start":"03:35.570 ","End":"03:39.080","Text":"Remember in previous section we talked about the one-way shorthand in"},{"Start":"03:39.080 ","End":"03:43.790","Text":"Chemistry or bio-chem for energy is this E within a circle."},{"Start":"03:43.790 ","End":"03:47.270","Text":"To understand how energy is used in biological systems,"},{"Start":"03:47.270 ","End":"03:49.820","Text":"we need to review basic thermodynamic principles"},{"Start":"03:49.820 ","End":"03:52.220","Text":"in the context of a system and its surroundings."},{"Start":"03:52.220 ","End":"03:53.690","Text":"Let\u0027s define these things."},{"Start":"03:53.690 ","End":"03:58.160","Text":"The term system refers to a collection of matter in a defined space."},{"Start":"03:58.160 ","End":"04:00.740","Text":"For chemical reactions occurring in solution,"},{"Start":"04:00.740 ","End":"04:03.200","Text":"a system is all the reactants and products."},{"Start":"04:03.200 ","End":"04:08.730","Text":"If you have a solution in a beaker and you have a chemical reaction,"},{"Start":"04:08.730 ","End":"04:11.250","Text":"the system is all the reactants,"},{"Start":"04:11.250 ","End":"04:12.400","Text":"all the solutions,"},{"Start":"04:12.400 ","End":"04:15.355","Text":"and the products that are within that beaker."},{"Start":"04:15.355 ","End":"04:18.400","Text":"This also can be explained as, in essence,"},{"Start":"04:18.400 ","End":"04:22.370","Text":"everything with a defined region of space or within"},{"Start":"04:22.370 ","End":"04:26.930","Text":"the universe chosen to study is considered a system."},{"Start":"04:26.930 ","End":"04:30.425","Text":"If we\u0027re considering Earth as what we\u0027re studying,"},{"Start":"04:30.425 ","End":"04:32.870","Text":"Earth is the system of study."},{"Start":"04:32.870 ","End":"04:36.320","Text":"The term surroundings refers to everything else,"},{"Start":"04:36.320 ","End":"04:40.790","Text":"meaning everything in the universe apart from the system being studied."},{"Start":"04:40.790 ","End":"04:44.580","Text":"For studying, let\u0027s say a beaker,"},{"Start":"04:44.630 ","End":"04:53.660","Text":"this is with a chemical reaction,"},{"Start":"04:53.660 ","End":"04:59.090","Text":"it has solutions in it which represent both the reactants and the products."},{"Start":"04:59.090 ","End":"05:03.950","Text":"This is our system."},{"Start":"05:03.950 ","End":"05:05.995","Text":"Everything around it,"},{"Start":"05:05.995 ","End":"05:13.115","Text":"all this and the air around it is the surroundings."},{"Start":"05:13.115 ","End":"05:16.400","Text":"On the other hand, if we are studying the human body,"},{"Start":"05:16.400 ","End":"05:20.330","Text":"this is our system and everything around it,"},{"Start":"05:20.330 ","End":"05:22.520","Text":"the grass he\u0027s standing on,"},{"Start":"05:22.520 ","End":"05:24.204","Text":"the tree by him,"},{"Start":"05:24.204 ","End":"05:27.125","Text":"everything else is the surrounding."},{"Start":"05:27.125 ","End":"05:32.389","Text":"The system and surroundings together constitute the universe."},{"Start":"05:32.389 ","End":"05:36.425","Text":"You take system, you take surroundings and together,"},{"Start":"05:36.425 ","End":"05:38.065","Text":"they are the universe."},{"Start":"05:38.065 ","End":"05:41.575","Text":"A system can be anything we choose to study,"},{"Start":"05:41.575 ","End":"05:46.135","Text":"a living cell, a whole organism or an ecological niche."},{"Start":"05:46.135 ","End":"05:48.415","Text":"It could be the dirt, it could be this plant,"},{"Start":"05:48.415 ","End":"05:50.980","Text":"it could be the butterfly and a flower,"},{"Start":"05:50.980 ","End":"05:54.095","Text":"it could be Earth and all the organisms on it."},{"Start":"05:54.095 ","End":"05:56.695","Text":"A system can be anything we choose to study."},{"Start":"05:56.695 ","End":"05:59.500","Text":"Systems may be 1 of 3 types."},{"Start":"05:59.500 ","End":"06:05.380","Text":"1, an open system in which energy and matter are freely exchanged with the surroundings."},{"Start":"06:05.380 ","End":"06:10.225","Text":"In other words, he and matter are transferred to the surroundings."},{"Start":"06:10.225 ","End":"06:15.695","Text":"Here, you have a beaker with some liquid in it and you heat it up and"},{"Start":"06:15.695 ","End":"06:20.655","Text":"what happens is the liquid will evaporate and go to the surrounding."},{"Start":"06:20.655 ","End":"06:22.670","Text":"This is an open system."},{"Start":"06:22.670 ","End":"06:25.100","Text":"Again, it\u0027s a system in which energy and"},{"Start":"06:25.100 ","End":"06:28.625","Text":"matter are freely exchanged with the surroundings."},{"Start":"06:28.625 ","End":"06:30.764","Text":"Then we have a closed system."},{"Start":"06:30.764 ","End":"06:33.185","Text":"Like this, you see there\u0027s a stopper here."},{"Start":"06:33.185 ","End":"06:36.590","Text":"A closed system is one in which energy is"},{"Start":"06:36.590 ","End":"06:40.505","Text":"exchanged with the surroundings but matter is not,"},{"Start":"06:40.505 ","End":"06:45.950","Text":"meaning heat, but not matter is transferred to the surrounding."},{"Start":"06:45.950 ","End":"06:48.845","Text":"While heating this beaker,"},{"Start":"06:48.845 ","End":"06:51.739","Text":"this is going to heat up and there will be some heat"},{"Start":"06:51.739 ","End":"06:57.080","Text":"that is released to the surrounding yet you won\u0027t"},{"Start":"06:57.080 ","End":"07:05.810","Text":"be able to see the evaporate come out because this stopper is blocking it."},{"Start":"07:05.810 ","End":"07:11.120","Text":"Matter is actually remaining within the beaker."},{"Start":"07:11.120 ","End":"07:14.630","Text":"The third type of a system is an isolated system in which"},{"Start":"07:14.630 ","End":"07:18.995","Text":"neither energy nor matter are exchanged with the surroundings."},{"Start":"07:18.995 ","End":"07:21.320","Text":"This is what you see here."},{"Start":"07:21.320 ","End":"07:25.345","Text":"As you probably guessed, this means that,"},{"Start":"07:25.345 ","End":"07:30.455","Text":"as we saw coming out of both open and the closed system,"},{"Start":"07:30.455 ","End":"07:33.185","Text":"neither heat is released to the surrounding,"},{"Start":"07:33.185 ","End":"07:38.090","Text":"nor is matter released to the surrounding."},{"Start":"07:38.090 ","End":"07:42.675","Text":"We basically have here an open beaker,"},{"Start":"07:42.675 ","End":"07:44.243","Text":"a stoppered flask,"},{"Start":"07:44.243 ","End":"07:48.035","Text":"in this one it\u0027s hard to see but there\u0027s a glass stopper here,"},{"Start":"07:48.035 ","End":"07:49.625","Text":"and a vacuum flask."},{"Start":"07:49.625 ","End":"07:52.370","Text":"If you put something cold in this, it remains cold."},{"Start":"07:52.370 ","End":"07:53.975","Text":"If you put something hot, it remains hot."},{"Start":"07:53.975 ","End":"07:56.455","Text":"It is isolated."},{"Start":"07:56.455 ","End":"08:00.005","Text":"Open system, it\u0027s open,"},{"Start":"08:00.005 ","End":"08:03.425","Text":"there can be exchange of matter and heat."},{"Start":"08:03.425 ","End":"08:08.020","Text":"Closed system, there can be exchange of heat,"},{"Start":"08:08.020 ","End":"08:10.455","Text":"not of matter,"},{"Start":"08:10.455 ","End":"08:16.429","Text":"and an isolated system where there is no exchange whatsoever."},{"Start":"08:16.429 ","End":"08:19.250","Text":"These are examples of an open system,"},{"Start":"08:19.250 ","End":"08:21.500","Text":"a closed system, and an isolated system."},{"Start":"08:21.500 ","End":"08:25.010","Text":"Biological systems are open systems as both matter,"},{"Start":"08:25.010 ","End":"08:26.930","Text":"which would be nutrients and waste products,"},{"Start":"08:26.930 ","End":"08:28.730","Text":"etc., and energy,"},{"Start":"08:28.730 ","End":"08:32.540","Text":"mainly heat are exchanged with the surroundings."},{"Start":"08:32.540 ","End":"08:38.000","Text":"An organism is an open system that obtains energy from its surrounding in 2 ways."},{"Start":"08:38.000 ","End":"08:42.300","Text":"It takes up chemical fuels such as glucose from the environment,"},{"Start":"08:42.300 ","End":"08:44.780","Text":"or it absorbs energy from sunlight."},{"Start":"08:44.780 ","End":"08:48.470","Text":"You have chemical energy that can be transferred,"},{"Start":"08:48.470 ","End":"08:50.240","Text":"for example, to kinetic energy,"},{"Start":"08:50.240 ","End":"08:54.890","Text":"the ability to move or turn and light energy absorbed,"},{"Start":"08:54.890 ","End":"08:57.350","Text":"for example, by photosynthetic organisms by"},{"Start":"08:57.350 ","End":"09:00.320","Text":"leaves and it\u0027s transferred to chemical energy."},{"Start":"09:00.320 ","End":"09:05.330","Text":"We can say the organism is an open system that obtains energy from chemical fuels"},{"Start":"09:05.330 ","End":"09:10.070","Text":"such as glucose from the environment or it absorbs energy from sunlight."},{"Start":"09:10.070 ","End":"09:14.110","Text":"This goes back to what we talked about, chemotrophs and phototrophs."},{"Start":"09:14.110 ","End":"09:19.520","Text":"As we completed Part I of the Laws of Thermodynamics in Physical Foundation,"},{"Start":"09:19.520 ","End":"09:21.980","Text":"you should be able to understand"},{"Start":"09:21.980 ","End":"09:24.665","Text":"the terms relating to thermochemistry and thermodynamics,"},{"Start":"09:24.665 ","End":"09:27.553","Text":"define a system and list the 3 different types,"},{"Start":"09:27.553 ","End":"09:29.630","Text":"and describe a biological system."},{"Start":"09:29.630 ","End":"09:32.390","Text":"From here, we will dive into Part II and"},{"Start":"09:32.390 ","End":"09:37.650","Text":"continue with the actual laws of thermodynamics."}],"ID":27036},{"Watched":false,"Name":"The Laws of Thermodynamics part 2","Duration":"10m 34s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26149,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.230 ","End":"00:04.680","Text":"Hi, welcome back to the laws of thermodynamics within Physical Foundation,"},{"Start":"00:04.680 ","End":"00:07.140","Text":"we are now in Part II and we are going to"},{"Start":"00:07.140 ","End":"00:10.050","Text":"cover the actual specific laws of thermodynamics."},{"Start":"00:10.050 ","End":"00:12.180","Text":"After this section you should be able to list and"},{"Start":"00:12.180 ","End":"00:14.790","Text":"explain the first second laws of thermodynamics,"},{"Start":"00:14.790 ","End":"00:16.755","Text":"discuss the concept of entropy,"},{"Start":"00:16.755 ","End":"00:18.735","Text":"and list the 3 common states of matter,"},{"Start":"00:18.735 ","End":"00:21.735","Text":"understand how they relate to entropy and phase changes."},{"Start":"00:21.735 ","End":"00:26.790","Text":"Let\u0027s go. The first law of thermodynamics describes the principle of conservation"},{"Start":"00:26.790 ","End":"00:31.905","Text":"of energy and states that the total amount of energy in the universe remains the same,"},{"Start":"00:31.905 ","End":"00:34.785","Text":"merely changing from one form to another,"},{"Start":"00:34.785 ","End":"00:38.820","Text":"basically indicating that energy is always conserved and it can"},{"Start":"00:38.820 ","End":"00:42.689","Text":"be converted from one form to another but it is conserved."},{"Start":"00:42.689 ","End":"00:44.540","Text":"While energy is used by the system,"},{"Start":"00:44.540 ","End":"00:46.580","Text":"it is not used up."},{"Start":"00:46.580 ","End":"00:50.630","Text":"In other words, energy can be neither created"},{"Start":"00:50.630 ","End":"00:54.581","Text":"nor destroyed, only transformed, converted."},{"Start":"00:54.581 ","End":"00:57.470","Text":"Eating ice cream transports chemical energy into kinetic energy,"},{"Start":"00:57.470 ","End":"01:02.465","Text":"so you eat ice cream and now you can go biking because you got energy."},{"Start":"01:02.465 ","End":"01:05.540","Text":"You ate ice cream, you got glucose,"},{"Start":"01:05.540 ","End":"01:11.330","Text":"and this turned into kinetic energy where you can bike and pedal."},{"Start":"01:11.330 ","End":"01:16.925","Text":"Photosynthesis transforms the light energy into its chemical energy stored within"},{"Start":"01:16.925 ","End":"01:23.290","Text":"organic molecules and then the organism because it can utilize this for its functions."},{"Start":"01:23.290 ","End":"01:27.125","Text":"Living cells transport chemical energy into ATP molecules,"},{"Start":"01:27.125 ","End":"01:31.760","Text":"ATP, we mentioned this before, adenine triphosphate."},{"Start":"01:31.760 ","End":"01:36.485","Text":"Energy in ATP molecules is easily accessible to do work."},{"Start":"01:36.485 ","End":"01:39.710","Text":"Thermodynamics states that in the absence of an energy input,"},{"Start":"01:39.710 ","End":"01:44.810","Text":"spontaneous processes tend toward dispersal of energy,"},{"Start":"01:44.810 ","End":"01:48.695","Text":"towards energy spreading and they\u0027re becoming disorder,"},{"Start":"01:48.695 ","End":"01:52.445","Text":"and the measure of this disorder is called entropy,"},{"Start":"01:52.445 ","End":"01:56.314","Text":"and this is always increasing in the universe."},{"Start":"01:56.314 ","End":"02:00.935","Text":"Therefore, it is conceptually easier to think about entropy as the spread of energy."},{"Start":"02:00.935 ","End":"02:03.017","Text":"You have the spread of energy,"},{"Start":"02:03.017 ","End":"02:04.370","Text":"how much it spreads,"},{"Start":"02:04.370 ","End":"02:06.740","Text":"that would be our entropy."},{"Start":"02:06.740 ","End":"02:11.740","Text":"It is conceptually easier and even more precise to think of it this way,"},{"Start":"02:11.740 ","End":"02:13.295","Text":"and that the spread of energy,"},{"Start":"02:13.295 ","End":"02:16.850","Text":"how energy is spread out, is entropy."},{"Start":"02:16.850 ","End":"02:21.275","Text":"Entropy is the randomness or disorder within a system."},{"Start":"02:21.275 ","End":"02:23.450","Text":"Specifically defining entropy,"},{"Start":"02:23.450 ","End":"02:29.450","Text":"it is the randomness or disorder within a system."},{"Start":"02:29.450 ","End":"02:35.120","Text":"High entropy means high disorder and low energy."},{"Start":"02:35.120 ","End":"02:39.380","Text":"For looking here, we have a solid form of water for"},{"Start":"02:39.380 ","End":"02:45.145","Text":"example and you have it all aligned and then with increasing entropy,"},{"Start":"02:45.145 ","End":"02:49.805","Text":"increasing disorder of randomness,"},{"Start":"02:49.805 ","End":"02:51.860","Text":"you see the molecules are spread more,"},{"Start":"02:51.860 ","End":"02:54.905","Text":"they\u0027re more in a disorder fashion,"},{"Start":"02:54.905 ","End":"02:58.760","Text":"and these are lower energy."},{"Start":"02:58.760 ","End":"03:02.960","Text":"It is important to note that all biological energy conversion processes,"},{"Start":"03:02.960 ","End":"03:06.859","Text":"as well as all mechanical energy conversion processes"},{"Start":"03:06.859 ","End":"03:09.865","Text":"are less than 100 percent efficient."},{"Start":"03:09.865 ","End":"03:14.690","Text":"Some of the converted energy is lost in an unusable form,"},{"Start":"03:14.690 ","End":"03:18.335","Text":"mostly as heat rather than used for work."},{"Start":"03:18.335 ","End":"03:20.720","Text":"We mentioned this in the Gibbs free energy sections."},{"Start":"03:20.720 ","End":"03:23.300","Text":"How this relates to entropy in the system is that when"},{"Start":"03:23.300 ","End":"03:26.360","Text":"bonds are broken and energy heat is released,"},{"Start":"03:26.360 ","End":"03:28.505","Text":"the molecules are freer in motion,"},{"Start":"03:28.505 ","End":"03:32.450","Text":"thus it translates to entropy and disorder in the fact"},{"Start":"03:32.450 ","End":"03:37.250","Text":"that the more energy that a system loses to it\u0027s surrounding,"},{"Start":"03:37.250 ","End":"03:39.695","Text":"the more disordered the system is."},{"Start":"03:39.695 ","End":"03:41.900","Text":"When we talked about ATP,"},{"Start":"03:41.900 ","End":"03:44.810","Text":"we talked about that it\u0027s triphosphate,"},{"Start":"03:44.810 ","End":"03:46.400","Text":"that\u0027s what the TP stands for."},{"Start":"03:46.400 ","End":"03:51.210","Text":"Then when we break the bond and it becomes ADP,"},{"Start":"03:53.260 ","End":"04:00.620","Text":"a diphosphate, what happens is the energy is released."},{"Start":"04:00.620 ","End":"04:08.405","Text":"With energy being released to the surrounding you now have an ADP and a phosphate,"},{"Start":"04:08.405 ","End":"04:12.340","Text":"which means now you have more molecules in the same area."},{"Start":"04:12.340 ","End":"04:20.025","Text":"If ATP was 1 molecule that you had, now in this,"},{"Start":"04:20.025 ","End":"04:22.430","Text":"that just illustrate this system,"},{"Start":"04:22.430 ","End":"04:24.560","Text":"this box, the cell,"},{"Start":"04:24.560 ","End":"04:31.425","Text":"now you have ADP plus phosphate,"},{"Start":"04:31.425 ","End":"04:36.320","Text":"meaning this is more disordered than this because here there\u0027s just one molecule and"},{"Start":"04:36.320 ","End":"04:41.270","Text":"here there\u0027s more and energy was released."},{"Start":"04:41.270 ","End":"04:45.020","Text":"The more energy that a system loses to its surrounding,"},{"Start":"04:45.020 ","End":"04:48.125","Text":"the more disordered the system is."},{"Start":"04:48.125 ","End":"04:52.985","Text":"If we\u0027re going back and thinking of here,"},{"Start":"04:52.985 ","End":"04:55.410","Text":"we have order,"},{"Start":"04:55.410 ","End":"05:01.320","Text":"entropy increases, energy released, and more disorder."},{"Start":"05:01.320 ","End":"05:03.560","Text":"When molecules at a high concentration in"},{"Start":"05:03.560 ","End":"05:08.374","Text":"one place diffuse and spread out, entropy also increases."},{"Start":"05:08.374 ","End":"05:15.800","Text":"Back to this, we see ordered molecules tightly setup and then entropy increases,"},{"Start":"05:15.800 ","End":"05:17.450","Text":"there are more spread out."},{"Start":"05:17.450 ","End":"05:22.610","Text":"If we look here, this graph shows temperature in Kelvin,"},{"Start":"05:22.610 ","End":"05:25.475","Text":"so as temperature is increasing,"},{"Start":"05:25.475 ","End":"05:29.630","Text":"and if we\u0027re looking entropy signified by that letter"},{"Start":"05:29.630 ","End":"05:35.750","Text":"S is increasing and what you see is we have a solid and let\u0027s think again of water,"},{"Start":"05:35.750 ","End":"05:37.985","Text":"so you have ice."},{"Start":"05:37.985 ","End":"05:42.860","Text":"Temperature is increasing, it\u0027s going up."},{"Start":"05:42.860 ","End":"05:48.860","Text":"What is happening now is the solid is melting and becoming a liquid."},{"Start":"05:48.860 ","End":"05:51.290","Text":"From the heat, the solid is becoming a liquid,"},{"Start":"05:51.290 ","End":"05:54.305","Text":"so ice turns into water."},{"Start":"05:54.305 ","End":"05:56.090","Text":"You heat this some more,"},{"Start":"05:56.090 ","End":"05:58.625","Text":"for example, you\u0027re boiling the water,"},{"Start":"05:58.625 ","End":"06:01.910","Text":"you are increasing the temperature and what happens is the"},{"Start":"06:01.910 ","End":"06:06.425","Text":"liquid evaporates and becomes gas."},{"Start":"06:06.425 ","End":"06:15.455","Text":"This now is basically water vapor or steam and heating vapor."},{"Start":"06:15.455 ","End":"06:17.780","Text":"An example to help understand the concept of entropy is to"},{"Start":"06:17.780 ","End":"06:20.120","Text":"consider the transition between ice and liquid water,"},{"Start":"06:20.120 ","End":"06:23.360","Text":"a process that happens spontaneously at room temperature."},{"Start":"06:23.360 ","End":"06:24.500","Text":"As we just went over,"},{"Start":"06:24.500 ","End":"06:30.180","Text":"we look at this from an entropy context though enthalpy is involved as well."},{"Start":"06:30.180 ","End":"06:34.430","Text":"The entropic contribution comes from the fact that the H_2O molecules in"},{"Start":"06:34.430 ","End":"06:36.740","Text":"ice crystals interact extensively through"},{"Start":"06:36.740 ","End":"06:39.905","Text":"hydrogen bonding and have relatively little motional energy,"},{"Start":"06:39.905 ","End":"06:41.285","Text":"a low entropy state,"},{"Start":"06:41.285 ","End":"06:42.785","Text":"they don\u0027t move a lot."},{"Start":"06:42.785 ","End":"06:45.290","Text":"However, the H_2O molecules in liquid water have"},{"Start":"06:45.290 ","End":"06:48.965","Text":"fluctuating hydrogen bonds that are made and broken continually,"},{"Start":"06:48.965 ","End":"06:52.355","Text":"resulting in much more motional energy, high entropy state."},{"Start":"06:52.355 ","End":"06:57.470","Text":"We will cover this concept in hydrogen bonding in the water chapter but"},{"Start":"06:57.470 ","End":"07:03.665","Text":"that same concept of entropy contributes to the idea that you have entropy increasing,"},{"Start":"07:03.665 ","End":"07:09.080","Text":"disorder increasing and while hydrogen bonds keep these tightly in order,"},{"Start":"07:09.080 ","End":"07:12.260","Text":"here you have fluctuating hydrogen bonds in liquid"},{"Start":"07:12.260 ","End":"07:17.210","Text":"where they are breaking and being made continuously."},{"Start":"07:17.210 ","End":"07:20.275","Text":"To reverse this process,"},{"Start":"07:20.275 ","End":"07:24.275","Text":"to form ice requires an input of energy,"},{"Start":"07:24.275 ","End":"07:27.560","Text":"specifically the electricity used by a freezer to"},{"Start":"07:27.560 ","End":"07:30.980","Text":"lower the temperature and turn water into ice, in other words,"},{"Start":"07:30.980 ","End":"07:34.340","Text":"the input of electricity in the freezer restraints"},{"Start":"07:34.340 ","End":"07:39.410","Text":"the ice crystals from melting by limiting the dispersal of energy."},{"Start":"07:39.410 ","End":"07:41.610","Text":"Motional energy is restricted,"},{"Start":"07:41.610 ","End":"07:42.885","Text":"so let\u0027s say this again."},{"Start":"07:42.885 ","End":"07:45.425","Text":"To form ice requires an input of energy,"},{"Start":"07:45.425 ","End":"07:48.440","Text":"the electricity used by a freezer to lower the temperature,"},{"Start":"07:48.440 ","End":"07:50.900","Text":"this energy input and turn water into ice,"},{"Start":"07:50.900 ","End":"07:53.660","Text":"this input of electricity restraints"},{"Start":"07:53.660 ","End":"07:57.425","Text":"the ice crystals from melting by limiting the dispersal of energy."},{"Start":"07:57.425 ","End":"07:59.915","Text":"Motional energy is restricted."},{"Start":"07:59.915 ","End":"08:02.555","Text":"Entropy is reduced."},{"Start":"08:02.555 ","End":"08:04.280","Text":"Entropy varies with temperature."},{"Start":"08:04.280 ","End":"08:05.600","Text":"The higher the temperature,"},{"Start":"08:05.600 ","End":"08:08.330","Text":"the more dispersion of energy in the system."},{"Start":"08:08.330 ","End":"08:11.210","Text":"When liquid water is boiled and turned into steam,"},{"Start":"08:11.210 ","End":"08:14.090","Text":"the gas phase, the energy is more spread out than liquid."},{"Start":"08:14.090 ","End":"08:16.640","Text":"They are constantly moving around and changing their positions."},{"Start":"08:16.640 ","End":"08:19.265","Text":"Here\u0027s another way to illustrate what we talked about."},{"Start":"08:19.265 ","End":"08:21.980","Text":"You have ice, low entropy,"},{"Start":"08:21.980 ","End":"08:23.315","Text":"it\u0027s the solid phase."},{"Start":"08:23.315 ","End":"08:27.830","Text":"The hydrogen bonds are keeping it in this crystal lattice form, it\u0027s stable."},{"Start":"08:27.830 ","End":"08:29.960","Text":"Then you have the liquid phase,"},{"Start":"08:29.960 ","End":"08:34.785","Text":"higher entropy and higher temperature had resulted in this."},{"Start":"08:34.785 ","End":"08:36.260","Text":"Liquid phase, and what happens here,"},{"Start":"08:36.260 ","End":"08:38.720","Text":"you have fluctuating hydrogen bonds and liquid water."},{"Start":"08:38.720 ","End":"08:42.770","Text":"They\u0027re constantly being made and recreated and broken."},{"Start":"08:42.770 ","End":"08:45.229","Text":"Then you have an increase in temperature,"},{"Start":"08:45.229 ","End":"08:47.570","Text":"and now you have the highest entropy,"},{"Start":"08:47.570 ","End":"08:50.675","Text":"and this is the gas phase and then here they are free"},{"Start":"08:50.675 ","End":"08:55.190","Text":"about to move and constantly changing their positions."},{"Start":"08:55.190 ","End":"08:57.493","Text":"Explaining this a little differently,"},{"Start":"08:57.493 ","End":"08:59.510","Text":"there are 3 common states of matter,"},{"Start":"08:59.510 ","End":"09:02.580","Text":"solid, liquid, and gas,"},{"Start":"09:02.580 ","End":"09:04.825","Text":"1, 2, 3."},{"Start":"09:04.825 ","End":"09:09.560","Text":"Each change in state is called a phase change."},{"Start":"09:09.560 ","End":"09:14.480","Text":"Each state has a different level of energy going from"},{"Start":"09:14.480 ","End":"09:19.850","Text":"lower in the solid phase and increasing with fluidity to liquid and then to gas."},{"Start":"09:19.850 ","End":"09:21.635","Text":"Using the same example of water,"},{"Start":"09:21.635 ","End":"09:25.040","Text":"water can exist in 3 states solid as ice,"},{"Start":"09:25.040 ","End":"09:27.230","Text":"liquid as water, gas, steam,"},{"Start":"09:27.230 ","End":"09:35.600","Text":"or water vapor and we see that there is an increase in the phase change of entropy."},{"Start":"09:35.600 ","End":"09:39.080","Text":"This is increasing as the temperature is increasing as"},{"Start":"09:39.080 ","End":"09:43.085","Text":"it\u0027s moving and changing phases from solid to liquid to gas."},{"Start":"09:43.085 ","End":"09:45.752","Text":"Using the same example of water,"},{"Start":"09:45.752 ","End":"09:47.680","Text":"water can exist in 3 states."},{"Start":"09:47.680 ","End":"09:50.640","Text":"Solid, ice, liquid,"},{"Start":"09:50.640 ","End":"09:53.955","Text":"water and gas, steam or vapor."},{"Start":"09:53.955 ","End":"09:57.875","Text":"Now, upon completion of Part II of the laws of thermodynamics,"},{"Start":"09:57.875 ","End":"09:59.960","Text":"you should be able to list and explain"},{"Start":"09:59.960 ","End":"10:04.040","Text":"the first second laws of thermodynamics and remember these are specific,"},{"Start":"10:04.040 ","End":"10:10.130","Text":"so the first has to do with one thing and the second is another."},{"Start":"10:10.130 ","End":"10:12.650","Text":"You should also be able to discuss the concept of"},{"Start":"10:12.650 ","End":"10:16.505","Text":"entropy and list the 3 common states of matter,"},{"Start":"10:16.505 ","End":"10:19.670","Text":"understand how they relate to entropy and phase changes."},{"Start":"10:19.670 ","End":"10:22.385","Text":"Now stepping up in completion of this lesson,"},{"Start":"10:22.385 ","End":"10:24.620","Text":"we can zoom out and say you should be able to"},{"Start":"10:24.620 ","End":"10:27.070","Text":"define a system and list the 3 different types,"},{"Start":"10:27.070 ","End":"10:28.850","Text":"list and explain the first second laws of"},{"Start":"10:28.850 ","End":"10:32.284","Text":"thermodynamics and discuss the concept of entropy."},{"Start":"10:32.284 ","End":"10:35.160","Text":"Let\u0027s go to the exercises."}],"ID":27037},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 9","Duration":"1m 20s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26150,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.250","Text":"Let\u0027s go over some exercises within"},{"Start":"00:02.250 ","End":"00:05.655","Text":"physical foundation testing your knowledge on the Laws of Thermodynamics."},{"Start":"00:05.655 ","End":"00:07.980","Text":"Define system, surrounding,"},{"Start":"00:07.980 ","End":"00:10.545","Text":"and universe in the context of biochemistry."},{"Start":"00:10.545 ","End":"00:15.180","Text":"The term system refers to a collection of matter in a defined space."},{"Start":"00:15.180 ","End":"00:17.180","Text":"For chemical reactions occurring in solution,"},{"Start":"00:17.180 ","End":"00:19.320","Text":"a system is all the reactants and products,"},{"Start":"00:19.320 ","End":"00:21.885","Text":"in essence, everything within a defined region of space."},{"Start":"00:21.885 ","End":"00:25.980","Text":"Remember I gave the example of a beaker and everything in it."},{"Start":"00:25.980 ","End":"00:28.155","Text":"This would be the system."},{"Start":"00:28.155 ","End":"00:32.340","Text":"The term surroundings refers to everything else."},{"Start":"00:32.340 ","End":"00:37.380","Text":"The system and surroundings together constitute the universe."},{"Start":"00:37.380 ","End":"00:40.065","Text":"If you have the beaker,"},{"Start":"00:40.065 ","End":"00:44.845","Text":"the solution or reactants and products in it,"},{"Start":"00:44.845 ","End":"00:48.650","Text":"this is the system."},{"Start":"00:48.650 ","End":"00:54.080","Text":"What is outside is the surrounding."},{"Start":"00:54.080 ","End":"00:58.445","Text":"These together are the universe."},{"Start":"00:58.445 ","End":"01:01.385","Text":"System refers to a collection of matter in a defined space,"},{"Start":"01:01.385 ","End":"01:03.995","Text":"may be a beaker or anything that we decided to study,"},{"Start":"01:03.995 ","End":"01:07.295","Text":"a certain organism, a certain planet."},{"Start":"01:07.295 ","End":"01:09.890","Text":"The term surroundings refers to everything else around"},{"Start":"01:09.890 ","End":"01:12.740","Text":"a system that is not what we\u0027re studying specifically."},{"Start":"01:12.740 ","End":"01:16.715","Text":"The system and surroundings together constitute the universe."},{"Start":"01:16.715 ","End":"01:20.910","Text":"With that we completed this exercise in the Laws of Thermodynamics."}],"ID":27038},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 10","Duration":"3m 40s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26151,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.440","Text":"Hey, let\u0027s test your knowledge on the laws of thermodynamics."},{"Start":"00:04.440 ","End":"00:07.770","Text":"Part 1, what are the 3 types of systems?"},{"Start":"00:07.770 ","End":"00:09.750","Text":"Open, closed,"},{"Start":"00:09.750 ","End":"00:12.465","Text":"and combined, that\u0027s for A."},{"Start":"00:12.465 ","End":"00:16.410","Text":"B: open, closed, or universal."},{"Start":"00:16.410 ","End":"00:20.115","Text":"C: open, closed, and isolated."},{"Start":"00:20.115 ","End":"00:22.095","Text":"Or, D: internal,"},{"Start":"00:22.095 ","End":"00:24.645","Text":"external, and combined."},{"Start":"00:24.645 ","End":"00:29.490","Text":"Well, we talked about an open system, remember a beaker?"},{"Start":"00:29.490 ","End":"00:30.870","Text":"We talked about a closed system,"},{"Start":"00:30.870 ","End":"00:32.730","Text":"a beaker with a stopper."},{"Start":"00:32.730 ","End":"00:36.910","Text":"Combined, we haven\u0027t really covered that."},{"Start":"00:36.950 ","End":"00:39.435","Text":"This, A,"},{"Start":"00:39.435 ","End":"00:41.265","Text":"would be a no-go."},{"Start":"00:41.265 ","End":"00:44.580","Text":"B, open, we said yes."},{"Start":"00:44.580 ","End":"00:46.275","Text":"Closed, we said yes."},{"Start":"00:46.275 ","End":"00:48.000","Text":"Universal, well,"},{"Start":"00:48.000 ","End":"00:49.950","Text":"we introduced the term universe,"},{"Start":"00:49.950 ","End":"00:55.430","Text":"but that was in relation to being the combination"},{"Start":"00:55.430 ","End":"01:02.460","Text":"of the system and its surroundings."},{"Start":"01:02.800 ","End":"01:06.080","Text":"The universe includes a system in it,"},{"Start":"01:06.080 ","End":"01:09.760","Text":"and we are actually asking what 3 types of systems there are."},{"Start":"01:09.760 ","End":"01:11.690","Text":"We talked about the open,"},{"Start":"01:11.690 ","End":"01:15.365","Text":"the closed, and what is our third one?"},{"Start":"01:15.365 ","End":"01:18.515","Text":"We know that B is incorrect because it\u0027s not universal."},{"Start":"01:18.515 ","End":"01:20.335","Text":"We have in C open,"},{"Start":"01:20.335 ","End":"01:22.230","Text":"closed, and isolated."},{"Start":"01:22.230 ","End":"01:25.080","Text":"That reminds us of an open beaker,"},{"Start":"01:25.080 ","End":"01:27.180","Text":"a beaker with a stopper, and the isolated."},{"Start":"01:27.180 ","End":"01:29.555","Text":"Remember that thermos, that vacuum,"},{"Start":"01:29.555 ","End":"01:31.380","Text":"that isolated cylinder;"},{"Start":"01:31.380 ","End":"01:33.170","Text":"this sounds like the three systems."},{"Start":"01:33.170 ","End":"01:35.630","Text":"This sounds correct to me, but let\u0027s verify and go over"},{"Start":"01:35.630 ","End":"01:38.630","Text":"D. We also have internal, external,"},{"Start":"01:38.630 ","End":"01:45.575","Text":"and combined, and we did not use these terms to name different systems."},{"Start":"01:45.575 ","End":"01:48.905","Text":"Therefore, D is incorrect and the correct answer is C."},{"Start":"01:48.905 ","End":"01:53.160","Text":"The three types of systems are open, closed, and isolated."},{"Start":"01:53.160 ","End":"01:55.880","Text":"Part 2, describe what each system means and"},{"Start":"01:55.880 ","End":"01:58.520","Text":"label each of the containers as the correct system."},{"Start":"01:58.520 ","End":"01:59.900","Text":"Remember, we had open,"},{"Start":"01:59.900 ","End":"02:02.090","Text":"closed, and isolated."},{"Start":"02:02.090 ","End":"02:05.150","Text":"An open system is one in which matter and"},{"Start":"02:05.150 ","End":"02:08.945","Text":"energy are freely exchanged with the surroundings."},{"Start":"02:08.945 ","End":"02:13.595","Text":"Matter and energy, if we think of the example where there was heating up a beaker,"},{"Start":"02:13.595 ","End":"02:16.640","Text":"the heat can be released through the beaker"},{"Start":"02:16.640 ","End":"02:21.605","Text":"and matter can be released through the openings."},{"Start":"02:21.605 ","End":"02:25.405","Text":"This seems to represent the open system,"},{"Start":"02:25.405 ","End":"02:27.620","Text":"but let\u0027s go on and describe."},{"Start":"02:27.620 ","End":"02:32.840","Text":"A closed system is one in which energy is exchanged with surroundings, but matter is not."},{"Start":"02:32.840 ","End":"02:35.165","Text":"Again, thinking of heating that beaker up,"},{"Start":"02:35.165 ","End":"02:37.495","Text":"we are lighting a flame under it."},{"Start":"02:37.495 ","End":"02:39.870","Text":"This is my beautiful fire."},{"Start":"02:39.870 ","End":"02:41.415","Text":"What you have,"},{"Start":"02:41.415 ","End":"02:43.200","Text":"liquid that heats up,"},{"Start":"02:43.200 ","End":"02:50.350","Text":"the beaker will heat up and heat or energy will be released to the surrounding."},{"Start":"02:50.350 ","End":"02:51.750","Text":"But there is this stopper here,"},{"Start":"02:51.750 ","End":"02:52.965","Text":"this glass stopper,"},{"Start":"02:52.965 ","End":"02:55.340","Text":"so vapor cannot escape,"},{"Start":"02:55.340 ","End":"02:57.260","Text":"whereas vapor can escape here."},{"Start":"02:57.260 ","End":"03:01.760","Text":"Vapor cannot escape, therefore matter is not exchanged with the surrounding."},{"Start":"03:01.760 ","End":"03:05.360","Text":"This seems like a closed system."},{"Start":"03:05.360 ","End":"03:09.410","Text":"Now an isolated system is one in which neither matter nor energy are"},{"Start":"03:09.410 ","End":"03:13.745","Text":"exchanged with the surroundings because the system is isolated."},{"Start":"03:13.745 ","End":"03:16.070","Text":"This one is the easiest one, it\u0027s isolated."},{"Start":"03:16.070 ","End":"03:18.940","Text":"Everything within the system is isolated from the surrounding."},{"Start":"03:18.940 ","End":"03:21.540","Text":"Energy and matter are not released."},{"Start":"03:21.540 ","End":"03:23.460","Text":"If we heat this thermos,"},{"Start":"03:23.460 ","End":"03:27.490","Text":"heat will not be released from this system."},{"Start":"03:27.490 ","End":"03:31.235","Text":"We have the open system,"},{"Start":"03:31.235 ","End":"03:34.280","Text":"the closed system,"},{"Start":"03:34.280 ","End":"03:37.570","Text":"and the isolated system,"},{"Start":"03:37.570 ","End":"03:40.000","Text":"and there we have it."}],"ID":27039},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 11","Duration":"1m 52s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26152,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.970","Text":"Welcome to the exercise on the laws of thermodynamics"},{"Start":"00:02.970 ","End":"00:06.045","Text":"within the topic of Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:06.045 ","End":"00:09.790","Text":"What type of system is a biological system?"},{"Start":"00:11.330 ","End":"00:17.730","Text":"Well, a biological system is an open system, as both matter,"},{"Start":"00:17.730 ","End":"00:20.714","Text":"such as nutrients and waste products, and energy,"},{"Start":"00:20.714 ","End":"00:24.480","Text":"mainly heat are exchanged with the surroundings."},{"Start":"00:24.480 ","End":"00:29.070","Text":"A biological system is considered an open system."},{"Start":"00:29.070 ","End":"00:32.315","Text":"Giving an example of a biological system,"},{"Start":"00:32.315 ","End":"00:35.495","Text":"let\u0027s just think of a human being."},{"Start":"00:35.495 ","End":"00:42.415","Text":"We both consume food and release waste."},{"Start":"00:42.415 ","End":"00:48.875","Text":"Food enters our system and waste exits our system."},{"Start":"00:48.875 ","End":"00:53.210","Text":"This is considered matter."},{"Start":"00:53.210 ","End":"01:01.145","Text":"Matter enters and transfers between the system and its surroundings."},{"Start":"01:01.145 ","End":"01:04.430","Text":"I\u0027m going to put here, surroundings."},{"Start":"01:04.430 ","End":"01:09.695","Text":"Furthermore, if we run or we\u0027re doing activity,"},{"Start":"01:09.695 ","End":"01:15.290","Text":"what happens is we sweat or we get hot."},{"Start":"01:15.290 ","End":"01:21.065","Text":"You have a release of heat, of energy."},{"Start":"01:21.065 ","End":"01:28.310","Text":"This is basically the exchange of energy with the surrounding."},{"Start":"01:28.310 ","End":"01:31.730","Text":"Therefore, a biological as an open system where"},{"Start":"01:31.730 ","End":"01:38.315","Text":"both matter and energy are exchanged with the surroundings."},{"Start":"01:38.315 ","End":"01:43.370","Text":"This also means that we can have heat from the sun,"},{"Start":"01:43.370 ","End":"01:45.935","Text":"for example, heat the human up,"},{"Start":"01:45.935 ","End":"01:48.800","Text":"and this heats up our system."},{"Start":"01:48.800 ","End":"01:53.130","Text":"Biological system is an open system, and there we have it."}],"ID":27040},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 12","Duration":"3m 6s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26153,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.930","Text":"Testing our knowledge within physical foundation about the laws of thermodynamics."},{"Start":"00:04.930 ","End":"00:07.899","Text":"List and describe the 2 main law that biochemists"},{"Start":"00:07.899 ","End":"00:11.080","Text":"use to describe biological processes in thermodynamic terms."},{"Start":"00:11.080 ","End":"00:13.330","Text":"We said there are 2 laws of thermodynamics."},{"Start":"00:13.330 ","End":"00:15.035","Text":"Let\u0027s start with the first one."},{"Start":"00:15.035 ","End":"00:17.980","Text":"The order is actually significant here because"},{"Start":"00:17.980 ","End":"00:20.755","Text":"the first law means one thing and the second law"},{"Start":"00:20.755 ","End":"00:26.620","Text":"is with a different meaning and it\u0027s accepted as such within biochemistry."},{"Start":"00:26.620 ","End":"00:28.660","Text":"The first law of thermodynamics describes"},{"Start":"00:28.660 ","End":"00:31.464","Text":"the principle of conservation of energy and states,"},{"Start":"00:31.464 ","End":"00:34.780","Text":"that the total amount of energy in the universe remains the same,"},{"Start":"00:34.780 ","End":"00:37.500","Text":"merely changing from one form to another."},{"Start":"00:37.500 ","End":"00:40.165","Text":"Basically indicating that energy is always conserved,"},{"Start":"00:40.165 ","End":"00:42.400","Text":"it cannot be created or destroyed."},{"Start":"00:42.400 ","End":"00:46.280","Text":"In essence, energy can be converted from one form into another."},{"Start":"00:46.280 ","End":"00:48.230","Text":"So while energy is used by the system,"},{"Start":"00:48.230 ","End":"00:49.570","Text":"it is not used up."},{"Start":"00:49.570 ","End":"00:51.695","Text":"This goes back to the idea of,"},{"Start":"00:51.695 ","End":"00:54.140","Text":"we have a certain amount of energy in a system,"},{"Start":"00:54.140 ","End":"00:56.915","Text":"and even if there is transfer of energy,"},{"Start":"00:56.915 ","End":"01:01.150","Text":"let\u0027s say from one organism to the surrounding,"},{"Start":"01:01.150 ","End":"01:05.840","Text":"you ate food and you use up the energy to run,"},{"Start":"01:05.840 ","End":"01:11.810","Text":"you are sweating and so water evaporates and energy heat is released to the environment."},{"Start":"01:11.810 ","End":"01:17.075","Text":"That energy that you consumed as chemical energy is released now as thermo energy,"},{"Start":"01:17.075 ","End":"01:19.835","Text":"as heat energy, to the surrounding. Energy is not lost."},{"Start":"01:19.835 ","End":"01:23.960","Text":"I will mention that there is the fact that"},{"Start":"01:23.960 ","End":"01:30.840","Text":"this conversion of energy is not 100 percent efficient."},{"Start":"01:30.840 ","End":"01:36.425","Text":"There is a small amount of energy that is not utilized and is lost to the environment."},{"Start":"01:36.425 ","End":"01:40.295","Text":"The second law of thermodynamics states that in the absence of an energy input,"},{"Start":"01:40.295 ","End":"01:44.870","Text":"all spontaneous processes in the universe tend towards scattering of energy,"},{"Start":"01:44.870 ","End":"01:48.980","Text":"disorder, and that the measure of this disorder known as entropy,"},{"Start":"01:48.980 ","End":"01:51.620","Text":"is always increasing in the universe."},{"Start":"01:51.620 ","End":"01:56.615","Text":"The idea is that when there\u0027s no energy input, just naturally,"},{"Start":"01:56.615 ","End":"02:04.324","Text":"things spontaneously will tend toward scattering of energy, towards disorder."},{"Start":"02:04.324 ","End":"02:06.685","Text":"If you have,"},{"Start":"02:06.685 ","End":"02:09.215","Text":"let\u0027s say ice,"},{"Start":"02:09.215 ","End":"02:12.110","Text":"and it\u0027s at room temperature and no energy is put into,"},{"Start":"02:12.110 ","End":"02:13.760","Text":"and we gave the example of a freezer,"},{"Start":"02:13.760 ","End":"02:16.175","Text":"of electricity to keep it cold,"},{"Start":"02:16.175 ","End":"02:19.280","Text":"it will melt and turn into water,"},{"Start":"02:19.280 ","End":"02:23.480","Text":"which we said this phase change from solid to liquid."},{"Start":"02:23.480 ","End":"02:30.928","Text":"This melting ice to liquid water, will happen spontaneously."},{"Start":"02:30.928 ","End":"02:33.515","Text":"Because liquid water, if you remember,"},{"Start":"02:33.515 ","End":"02:38.580","Text":"has a higher entropy than ice."},{"Start":"02:38.580 ","End":"02:43.715","Text":"Entropy increases and ice becomes liquid water."},{"Start":"02:43.715 ","End":"02:47.465","Text":"This is just an example of the idea that when there\u0027s no energy input,"},{"Start":"02:47.465 ","End":"02:53.975","Text":"spontaneous processes will tend to move towards scattering of energy disorder."},{"Start":"02:53.975 ","End":"02:55.805","Text":"This measure of disorder,"},{"Start":"02:55.805 ","End":"02:59.945","Text":"which we call entropy is always increasing in the universe."},{"Start":"02:59.945 ","End":"03:04.040","Text":"We talked about the 2 laws of thermodynamics and what they mean."},{"Start":"03:04.040 ","End":"03:07.080","Text":"I will see you in the next section."}],"ID":27041},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Gibbs Free Energy part 1","Duration":"10m 28s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26154,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.800","Text":"Hi there. We are talking about concepts and"},{"Start":"00:04.800 ","End":"00:09.450","Text":"physical foundation and this time we\u0027ll specifically talk about Gibbs free energy."},{"Start":"00:09.450 ","End":"00:10.620","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:10.620 ","End":"00:13.230","Text":"you will be able to explain what Gibbs free energy is,"},{"Start":"00:13.230 ","End":"00:15.912","Text":"understand the terms entropy and enthalpy;"},{"Start":"00:15.912 ","End":"00:18.735","Text":"and entropy we covered a little bit in the previous section,"},{"Start":"00:18.735 ","End":"00:22.304","Text":"and defined endergonic reactions and exergonic reactions."},{"Start":"00:22.304 ","End":"00:25.905","Text":"Now in this lecture, we will also split this into two parts."},{"Start":"00:25.905 ","End":"00:27.495","Text":"Let\u0027s dive into the first part."},{"Start":"00:27.495 ","End":"00:29.745","Text":"Within the first part of Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"00:29.745 ","End":"00:32.670","Text":"we will talk about concepts so that you should be able to,"},{"Start":"00:32.670 ","End":"00:33.930","Text":"at the end of the part,"},{"Start":"00:33.930 ","End":"00:35.760","Text":"explain what Gibbs free energy is,"},{"Start":"00:35.760 ","End":"00:38.040","Text":"understand the terms entropy and enthalpy,"},{"Start":"00:38.040 ","End":"00:42.285","Text":"and define endergonic reactions and exergonic reactions."},{"Start":"00:42.285 ","End":"00:46.100","Text":"In 1878, the American theoretical physicist J. Willard"},{"Start":"00:46.100 ","End":"00:50.960","Text":"Gibbs developed a theory of energy changes during chemical reactions."},{"Start":"00:50.960 ","End":"00:55.880","Text":"He showed that the free energy constant G of any closed system"},{"Start":"00:55.880 ","End":"01:00.230","Text":"can be defined by 3 quantities: Enthalpy,"},{"Start":"01:00.230 ","End":"01:02.880","Text":"which is illustrated by H,"},{"Start":"01:02.880 ","End":"01:06.660","Text":"reflecting the number and bonds."},{"Start":"01:06.660 ","End":"01:10.610","Text":"Entropy, and this is labeled with an S,"},{"Start":"01:10.610 ","End":"01:13.940","Text":"is randomness or disorder of components of a chemical system."},{"Start":"01:13.940 ","End":"01:16.050","Text":"We had talked about this one in the previous section."},{"Start":"01:16.050 ","End":"01:19.960","Text":"We have enthalpy reflecting the number and bonds,"},{"Start":"01:19.960 ","End":"01:26.090","Text":"we have entropy that refers to disorder in a chemical system,"},{"Start":"01:26.090 ","End":"01:28.819","Text":"and we have absolute temperature."},{"Start":"01:28.819 ","End":"01:32.420","Text":"This is the temperature as measured in Kelvin."},{"Start":"01:32.420 ","End":"01:36.125","Text":"I think this is probably the only place they really talk about Kelvin."},{"Start":"01:36.125 ","End":"01:38.995","Text":"This is instead of Fahrenheit or Celsius."},{"Start":"01:38.995 ","End":"01:41.415","Text":"Absolute temperature is Kelvin."},{"Start":"01:41.415 ","End":"01:45.350","Text":"These are the 3 quantities that free energy,"},{"Start":"01:45.350 ","End":"01:46.730","Text":"the free energy constant, G,"},{"Start":"01:46.730 ","End":"01:49.010","Text":"of an enclosed system is defined by."},{"Start":"01:49.010 ","End":"01:51.890","Text":"Enthalpy, H, entropy, S,"},{"Start":"01:51.890 ","End":"01:53.300","Text":"and absolute temperature,"},{"Start":"01:53.300 ","End":"01:56.180","Text":"T. You have H, enthalpy."},{"Start":"01:56.180 ","End":"01:59.645","Text":"I try to remember it by the H in it."},{"Start":"01:59.645 ","End":"02:03.455","Text":"Entropy is so random,"},{"Start":"02:03.455 ","End":"02:07.635","Text":"S, and absolute temperature, its temperature."},{"Start":"02:07.635 ","End":"02:12.140","Text":"With the term entropy, just an FYI,"},{"Start":"02:12.140 ","End":"02:15.515","Text":"this term actually literally means a change within,"},{"Start":"02:15.515 ","End":"02:18.320","Text":"so it\u0027s becoming more random or disorder."},{"Start":"02:18.320 ","End":"02:21.235","Text":"It\u0027s everly changing, continuously changing."},{"Start":"02:21.235 ","End":"02:26.540","Text":"Gibbs described a way to determine if a chemical reaction is favorable or"},{"Start":"02:26.540 ","End":"02:28.940","Text":"unfavorable under a given pressure and"},{"Start":"02:28.940 ","End":"02:32.540","Text":"temperature using the function he called free energy."},{"Start":"02:32.540 ","End":"02:34.640","Text":"Gibbs free energy, G,"},{"Start":"02:34.640 ","End":"02:37.280","Text":"is defined as the difference between the enthalpy,"},{"Start":"02:37.280 ","End":"02:39.005","Text":"we talked about this refers to bonds,"},{"Start":"02:39.005 ","End":"02:43.275","Text":"and the entropy which regards disorder of a system."},{"Start":"02:43.275 ","End":"02:47.210","Text":"Again, the Gibbs free energy is defined as the difference between the enthalpy,"},{"Start":"02:47.210 ","End":"02:51.395","Text":"the bonds, and the disorder of a system at a given temperature."},{"Start":"02:51.395 ","End":"02:53.540","Text":"At a given temperature,"},{"Start":"02:53.540 ","End":"02:55.985","Text":"G, Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"02:55.985 ","End":"02:59.060","Text":"is defined by the difference between"},{"Start":"02:59.060 ","End":"03:04.714","Text":"enthalpy and entropy of a systematic given temperature."},{"Start":"03:04.714 ","End":"03:07.370","Text":"If a chemical reaction occurs at a constant temperature,"},{"Start":"03:07.370 ","End":"03:11.240","Text":"T, the free energy change, Delta G,"},{"Start":"03:11.240 ","End":"03:15.105","Text":"is determined by the enthalpy change, Delta H,"},{"Start":"03:15.105 ","End":"03:20.795","Text":"the kinds and numbers of chemical bonds and non-covalent interactions broken and formed."},{"Start":"03:20.795 ","End":"03:24.920","Text":"Delta is used in sciences and biology and chemistry."},{"Start":"03:24.920 ","End":"03:29.860","Text":"Delta means change or difference."},{"Start":"03:30.080 ","End":"03:34.480","Text":"The free energy change, Delta G,"},{"Start":"03:34.480 ","End":"03:37.805","Text":"is determined by the enthalpy change, Delta H,"},{"Start":"03:37.805 ","End":"03:42.875","Text":"which means the kinds and numbers of chemical bonds that are broken and formed."},{"Start":"03:42.875 ","End":"03:45.785","Text":"It is a concept, enthalpy,"},{"Start":"03:45.785 ","End":"03:49.685","Text":"used in science and engineering when heat and work needs to be calculated."},{"Start":"03:49.685 ","End":"03:52.475","Text":"When a substance changes at constant pressure,"},{"Start":"03:52.475 ","End":"03:55.790","Text":"enthalpy tells how much heat and work was added or removed from"},{"Start":"03:55.790 ","End":"03:59.540","Text":"the substance in order to adapt the bonds."},{"Start":"03:59.540 ","End":"04:02.465","Text":"Enthalpy is similar to energy, but not the same."},{"Start":"04:02.465 ","End":"04:06.620","Text":"The entropy change is also part of what Delta G is determined by."},{"Start":"04:06.620 ","End":"04:09.095","Text":"Delta S, the entropy change,"},{"Start":"04:09.095 ","End":"04:12.555","Text":"and this is the change in the systems\u0027 randomness,"},{"Start":"04:12.555 ","End":"04:17.340","Text":"how much change there is when we talked about ice to liquid water,"},{"Start":"04:17.340 ","End":"04:20.330","Text":"how much change there is in assistance randomness."},{"Start":"04:20.330 ","End":"04:25.980","Text":"Delta G therefore is the difference between Delta H,"},{"Start":"04:25.980 ","End":"04:29.030","Text":"the enthalpy change, and Delta S,"},{"Start":"04:29.030 ","End":"04:34.010","Text":"the change in the systems\u0027 randomness at a constant temperature,"},{"Start":"04:34.010 ","End":"04:36.650","Text":"T. Now by definition,"},{"Start":"04:36.650 ","End":"04:43.040","Text":"Delta H is negative for a reaction that releases heat,"},{"Start":"04:43.040 ","End":"04:48.845","Text":"Delta S is positive for a reaction that increases systems randomness."},{"Start":"04:48.845 ","End":"04:51.350","Text":"We talked about enthalpy,"},{"Start":"04:51.350 ","End":"04:53.745","Text":"it\u0027s a matter of bonds."},{"Start":"04:53.745 ","End":"04:55.369","Text":"If heat is released,"},{"Start":"04:55.369 ","End":"04:56.600","Text":"it generally means,"},{"Start":"04:56.600 ","End":"04:58.010","Text":"if we think about the ATP,"},{"Start":"04:58.010 ","End":"05:00.830","Text":"the triphosphates, the interactions are broken."},{"Start":"05:00.830 ","End":"05:02.450","Text":"Therefore, Delta H,"},{"Start":"05:02.450 ","End":"05:06.020","Text":"the number of bonds are being reduced."},{"Start":"05:06.020 ","End":"05:13.892","Text":"Delta H, when a reaction releases heat, will be negative."},{"Start":"05:13.892 ","End":"05:16.994","Text":"Write this out so you can visualize this,"},{"Start":"05:16.994 ","End":"05:22.400","Text":"that a reaction that releases heat will"},{"Start":"05:22.400 ","End":"05:28.250","Text":"have a negative Delta H because generally we know that means that bonds are breaking."},{"Start":"05:28.250 ","End":"05:30.350","Text":"Now, what happens when bonds are breaking?"},{"Start":"05:30.350 ","End":"05:33.445","Text":"There is more randomness."},{"Start":"05:33.445 ","End":"05:37.661","Text":"Basically, entropy is increasing."},{"Start":"05:37.661 ","End":"05:40.565","Text":"We know when entropy is increasing,"},{"Start":"05:40.565 ","End":"05:44.555","Text":"the energy of the system is reduced because the energy is released to the system."},{"Start":"05:44.555 ","End":"05:48.420","Text":"Again, in a reaction that releases heat, bonds are breaking,"},{"Start":"05:48.420 ","End":"05:51.515","Text":"Delta H is negative, but entropy,"},{"Start":"05:51.515 ","End":"05:55.160","Text":"randomness, Delta S is positive."},{"Start":"05:55.160 ","End":"05:56.885","Text":"It is going up."},{"Start":"05:56.885 ","End":"06:00.125","Text":"Moving on to endergonic reactions and exergonic reactions."},{"Start":"06:00.125 ","End":"06:02.150","Text":"If the Gibbs free energy change, Delta G,"},{"Start":"06:02.150 ","End":"06:04.265","Text":"value for reaction is less than 0,"},{"Start":"06:04.265 ","End":"06:06.860","Text":"negative Delta G isn\u0027t less than 0,"},{"Start":"06:06.860 ","End":"06:11.915","Text":"then the reaction is favorable in the forward direction and exergonic,"},{"Start":"06:11.915 ","End":"06:14.645","Text":"meaning energy is released."},{"Start":"06:14.645 ","End":"06:19.150","Text":"exergonic reaction is one where energy is released."},{"Start":"06:19.150 ","End":"06:22.511","Text":"You have energy supplied,"},{"Start":"06:22.511 ","End":"06:25.790","Text":"a reaction occurs, product heavens."},{"Start":"06:25.790 ","End":"06:31.925","Text":"If you remember, enthalpy is reducing because bonds are breaking."},{"Start":"06:31.925 ","End":"06:35.540","Text":"This also means the entropy is increasing,"},{"Start":"06:35.540 ","End":"06:38.045","Text":"energy is released,"},{"Start":"06:38.045 ","End":"06:40.070","Text":"Delta G is negative."},{"Start":"06:40.070 ","End":"06:42.830","Text":"However, the Delta G value is greater than 0,"},{"Start":"06:42.830 ","End":"06:44.270","Text":"it\u0027s a positive Delta G,"},{"Start":"06:44.270 ","End":"06:50.300","Text":"then the reaction is unfavorable in the forward direction and endergonic,"},{"Start":"06:50.300 ","End":"06:54.735","Text":"meaning energy needs to be supplied."},{"Start":"06:54.735 ","End":"07:03.530","Text":"If you are taking some structure in order to have this reaction move forward,"},{"Start":"07:03.530 ","End":"07:06.050","Text":"you actually need to put an energy."},{"Start":"07:06.050 ","End":"07:13.685","Text":"That means that you are actually having to invest energy into the system."},{"Start":"07:13.685 ","End":"07:17.720","Text":"Then the Delta G is negative and"},{"Start":"07:17.720 ","End":"07:22.190","Text":"the reaction is endergonic because energy must be supplied,"},{"Start":"07:22.190 ","End":"07:25.550","Text":"Delta G is positive, energy is released."},{"Start":"07:25.550 ","End":"07:27.960","Text":"In exergonic, Delta G is negative."},{"Start":"07:27.960 ","End":"07:31.760","Text":"So exer, think of exercise,"},{"Start":"07:31.760 ","End":"07:36.560","Text":"you\u0027re releasing energy or endergonic, inside."},{"Start":"07:36.560 ","End":"07:41.030","Text":"End, you\u0027re having to put stuff in, it won\u0027t happen."},{"Start":"07:41.030 ","End":"07:43.925","Text":"Reactions will end if you don\u0027t invest energy."},{"Start":"07:43.925 ","End":"07:48.320","Text":"A reaction in which Delta G is equal to 0 is at equilibrium,"},{"Start":"07:48.320 ","End":"07:49.880","Text":"meaning that the rate of formation of"},{"Start":"07:49.880 ","End":"07:52.563","Text":"products is equal to the rate of formation of reactants,"},{"Start":"07:52.563 ","End":"07:57.575","Text":"so no net change occurs in concentrations of products and reactants, it\u0027s equal."},{"Start":"07:57.575 ","End":"08:01.250","Text":"Moving forward, we will just go over this"},{"Start":"08:01.250 ","End":"08:04.745","Text":"separately and explain the terms and their significance."},{"Start":"08:04.745 ","End":"08:09.695","Text":"Reactions proceed spontaneously in the direction that lowers their Gibbs free energy."},{"Start":"08:09.695 ","End":"08:13.520","Text":"A reaction is deemed spontaneous if Delta G is smaller than 0,"},{"Start":"08:13.520 ","End":"08:16.100","Text":"and this is an exothermic reaction."},{"Start":"08:16.100 ","End":"08:19.955","Text":"It\u0027s just reiterating and going specifically separately."},{"Start":"08:19.955 ","End":"08:28.395","Text":"Exergonic is reacting that is spontaneous and it\u0027s Gibbs free energy is smaller than 0,"},{"Start":"08:28.395 ","End":"08:33.320","Text":"meaning energy is released to the environment, to the surrounding."},{"Start":"08:33.320 ","End":"08:35.060","Text":"Now, this can occur without adding energy into"},{"Start":"08:35.060 ","End":"08:38.045","Text":"the system and that is what spontaneous means."},{"Start":"08:38.045 ","End":"08:40.700","Text":"Example, catabolic processes."},{"Start":"08:40.700 ","End":"08:44.945","Text":"Remember we talked about catabolism within metabolism."},{"Start":"08:44.945 ","End":"08:48.965","Text":"I will go over it in more details soon."},{"Start":"08:48.965 ","End":"08:55.295","Text":"Just to reiterate, exergonic literally means outside work,"},{"Start":"08:55.295 ","End":"08:57.710","Text":"which means releasing energy in the form of work."},{"Start":"08:57.710 ","End":"08:59.120","Text":"In the field of thermodynamics,"},{"Start":"08:59.120 ","End":"09:02.060","Text":"an exergonic process involves the positive flow of energy"},{"Start":"09:02.060 ","End":"09:05.265","Text":"from a particular system leading to the surroundings."},{"Start":"09:05.265 ","End":"09:08.405","Text":"Energy is released from the system to the surroundings."},{"Start":"09:08.405 ","End":"09:10.790","Text":"Now, since exergonic reactions release energy,"},{"Start":"09:10.790 ","End":"09:13.565","Text":"this type of reaction will usually occur spontaneously."},{"Start":"09:13.565 ","End":"09:18.080","Text":"Why? Because the exergonic reaction typically do not require energy for them to occur."},{"Start":"09:18.080 ","End":"09:20.690","Text":"An exergonic reaction is a type of chemical reaction that"},{"Start":"09:20.690 ","End":"09:25.175","Text":"releases free energy to the surroundings and tends to occur spontaneously."},{"Start":"09:25.175 ","End":"09:29.599","Text":"The final state of this reaction is less than it\u0027s initial state,"},{"Start":"09:29.599 ","End":"09:31.805","Text":"less energy, more entropy."},{"Start":"09:31.805 ","End":"09:35.195","Text":"Examples of exergonic reactions are the breakdowns of"},{"Start":"09:35.195 ","End":"09:40.035","Text":"sugars through cellular catabolism and respiration."},{"Start":"09:40.035 ","End":"09:41.990","Text":"Remember we\u0027re talking about metabolism."},{"Start":"09:41.990 ","End":"09:45.785","Text":"Catabolism is the breakdown of sugars, energy is released."},{"Start":"09:45.785 ","End":"09:47.510","Text":"Respiration is another example."},{"Start":"09:47.510 ","End":"09:50.150","Text":"A reaction is deemed non-spontaneous if"},{"Start":"09:50.150 ","End":"09:53.615","Text":"Delta G is bigger than 0 and it is termed endergonic."},{"Start":"09:53.615 ","End":"09:55.094","Text":"An endergonic reaction,"},{"Start":"09:55.094 ","End":"09:57.350","Text":"Delta G is bigger than 0,"},{"Start":"09:57.350 ","End":"09:59.000","Text":"energy must be supplied."},{"Start":"09:59.000 ","End":"10:04.850","Text":"It requires the addition of free energy and an example of this is an anabolic process,"},{"Start":"10:04.850 ","End":"10:06.530","Text":"which I will explain shortly."},{"Start":"10:06.530 ","End":"10:09.470","Text":"Again, endergonic, energy is supplied,"},{"Start":"10:09.470 ","End":"10:11.120","Text":"Delta G is positive."},{"Start":"10:11.120 ","End":"10:14.055","Text":"We covered and completed Part 1 of Gibbs free energy"},{"Start":"10:14.055 ","End":"10:17.375","Text":"and now you should be able to explain what Gibbs free energy is,"},{"Start":"10:17.375 ","End":"10:19.475","Text":"understand the terms entropy and enthalpy,"},{"Start":"10:19.475 ","End":"10:24.005","Text":"and define endergonic reactions and exergonic reactions."},{"Start":"10:24.005 ","End":"10:29.790","Text":"We are now going to move to the second part to complete this lesson."}],"ID":27042},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Gibbs Free Energy part 2","Duration":"8m 19s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26155,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.240","Text":"Welcome back to Gibbs free energy within Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:03.240 ","End":"00:06.630","Text":"We are in Part II where we will cover and be able to define"},{"Start":"00:06.630 ","End":"00:10.200","Text":"endergonic reactions and exergonic reactions in reference to cell function."},{"Start":"00:10.200 ","End":"00:12.330","Text":"We covered these definitions in"},{"Start":"00:12.330 ","End":"00:16.245","Text":"the previous part and now we will correlate it to cell function."},{"Start":"00:16.245 ","End":"00:19.020","Text":"We will be able to state the common form of free energy in the cell"},{"Start":"00:19.020 ","End":"00:21.705","Text":"and relate the equilibrium to Gibbs free energy."},{"Start":"00:21.705 ","End":"00:26.400","Text":"The cell function depends on the presence of complex structures and molecules"},{"Start":"00:26.400 ","End":"00:31.349","Text":"such as proteins and nucleic acids for which the formation requires energy input."},{"Start":"00:31.349 ","End":"00:33.465","Text":"If you remember, we said"},{"Start":"00:33.465 ","End":"00:37.155","Text":"nucleic acids and proteins are the most abundant biomolecules in the cell,"},{"Start":"00:37.155 ","End":"00:44.865","Text":"and energy is required in order to form these structures."},{"Start":"00:44.865 ","End":"00:47.870","Text":"Meaning, they are less stable and more highly"},{"Start":"00:47.870 ","End":"00:50.990","Text":"ordered than a mixture of their monomeric components."},{"Start":"00:50.990 ","End":"00:54.435","Text":"Remember, we had monomers and polymers,"},{"Start":"00:54.435 ","End":"00:56.885","Text":"and to form the polymers generally,"},{"Start":"00:56.885 ","End":"00:59.510","Text":"we need an investment of energy."},{"Start":"00:59.510 ","End":"01:02.470","Text":"Cells couple energy-requiring,"},{"Start":"01:02.470 ","End":"01:07.010","Text":"endergonic, reactions to reactions that release free energy,"},{"Start":"01:07.010 ","End":"01:12.515","Text":"exergonic reactions so that the overall process is exergonic,"},{"Start":"01:12.515 ","End":"01:16.880","Text":"releases free energy, meaning that the sum of the free energy change is negative,"},{"Start":"01:16.880 ","End":"01:18.450","Text":"meaning it can occur spontaneously."},{"Start":"01:18.450 ","End":"01:22.190","Text":"It is more favorable to her,"},{"Start":"01:22.190 ","End":"01:25.640","Text":"thus allowing thermodynamically unfavorable processes resulting"},{"Start":"01:25.640 ","End":"01:29.550","Text":"in a presence of the needed molecules to remain."},{"Start":"01:29.550 ","End":"01:31.655","Text":"Again, it happens in the cell,"},{"Start":"01:31.655 ","End":"01:34.520","Text":"it couples these energy requiring"},{"Start":"01:34.520 ","End":"01:38.140","Text":"endergonic reactions to reactions that release free energy,"},{"Start":"01:38.140 ","End":"01:41.030","Text":"exergonic reactions, so that together"},{"Start":"01:41.030 ","End":"01:44.015","Text":"the overall process is exergonic, releases energy."},{"Start":"01:44.015 ","End":"01:49.100","Text":"The energy input needed for the endergonic will be smaller than"},{"Start":"01:49.100 ","End":"01:52.340","Text":"the energy released by the exergonic reactions"},{"Start":"01:52.340 ","End":"01:56.320","Text":"allowing this to occur and this to be favorable."},{"Start":"01:56.320 ","End":"02:01.400","Text":"The source of free energy is commonly from the breakage of bonds such as in ATP,"},{"Start":"02:01.400 ","End":"02:06.109","Text":"adenosine triphosphate, and GTP, guanosine triphosphate."},{"Start":"02:06.109 ","End":"02:10.085","Text":"These both are based either an adenine or guanine."},{"Start":"02:10.085 ","End":"02:12.935","Text":"There can be a guanine here instead of the adenine,"},{"Start":"02:12.935 ","End":"02:15.110","Text":"and they both have 3 phosphates,"},{"Start":"02:15.110 ","End":"02:18.800","Text":"and the breaking of this 3 phosphate results in"},{"Start":"02:18.800 ","End":"02:24.450","Text":"energy release when it becomes ADP or GDP."},{"Start":"02:25.850 ","End":"02:31.490","Text":"This is the source of free energy for these reactions."},{"Start":"02:31.490 ","End":"02:36.380","Text":"Specific bond that is broken as a phosphoanhydride bond."},{"Start":"02:36.380 ","End":"02:39.530","Text":"This is the phosphoanhydride bond."},{"Start":"02:39.530 ","End":"02:42.050","Text":"A lot of these terms are hard to say."},{"Start":"02:42.050 ","End":"02:45.260","Text":"I get to say them maybe more easily."},{"Start":"02:45.260 ","End":"02:48.680","Text":"The ones that I say more easily are ones that I\u0027ve used and said many times."},{"Start":"02:48.680 ","End":"02:51.740","Text":"But some of them still are tricky."},{"Start":"02:51.740 ","End":"02:53.945","Text":"Just try to remember the writing,"},{"Start":"02:53.945 ","End":"02:55.280","Text":"recognize the word,"},{"Start":"02:55.280 ","End":"02:57.050","Text":"and then you can practice saying them."},{"Start":"02:57.050 ","End":"03:01.460","Text":"The cell combines the breaking of such a bond between 2 phosphates and ATP,"},{"Start":"03:01.460 ","End":"03:05.465","Text":"for example, resulting in ADP, diphosphate,"},{"Start":"03:05.465 ","End":"03:08.300","Text":"or in the breaking of 2 such bonds resulting in AMP,"},{"Start":"03:08.300 ","End":"03:10.910","Text":"monophosphate allowing the needed energy to build"},{"Start":"03:10.910 ","End":"03:14.735","Text":"necessary complex molecules such as proteins from amino acids."},{"Start":"03:14.735 ","End":"03:17.510","Text":"Amino acids are the monomers,"},{"Start":"03:17.510 ","End":"03:22.640","Text":"and the proteins are the polymers or nucleic acids from nucleotides."},{"Start":"03:22.640 ","End":"03:26.720","Text":"Again, nucleotides are the monomers,"},{"Start":"03:26.720 ","End":"03:30.140","Text":"and the nucleic acids are the polymers."},{"Start":"03:30.140 ","End":"03:35.104","Text":"You have ATP, and here we\u0027re going to see it in the ATP ADP cycle."},{"Start":"03:35.104 ","End":"03:36.559","Text":"You have adenine triphosphate."},{"Start":"03:36.559 ","End":"03:40.985","Text":"The 3 triphosphates, you have a phosphoanhydride bond broken,"},{"Start":"03:40.985 ","End":"03:44.300","Text":"a phosphate is released and energy is released."},{"Start":"03:44.300 ","End":"03:46.540","Text":"Then you have an ADP,"},{"Start":"03:46.540 ","End":"03:49.890","Text":"diphosphate an adenine diphosphate."},{"Start":"03:49.890 ","End":"03:53.345","Text":"The forming of the ATP again,"},{"Start":"03:53.345 ","End":"03:59.240","Text":"adding the phosphate to the ADP to form the ATP is by investing energy."},{"Start":"03:59.240 ","End":"04:04.955","Text":"In our case it will be from food because we are chemotrophs,"},{"Start":"04:04.955 ","End":"04:10.370","Text":"we need to absorb the chemical fuel through consumption of food."},{"Start":"04:10.370 ","End":"04:14.710","Text":"This energy that absorbs is what allows ADP to turn to ATP."},{"Start":"04:14.710 ","End":"04:19.160","Text":"The overall processes exergonic resulting in a negative Delta G,"},{"Start":"04:19.160 ","End":"04:21.410","Text":"thus allowing the cells to synthesize and"},{"Start":"04:21.410 ","End":"04:24.190","Text":"maintain the information rich polymers essential to life,"},{"Start":"04:24.190 ","End":"04:27.150","Text":"talking about these proteins and nucleic acids."},{"Start":"04:27.150 ","End":"04:32.480","Text":"The nucleic acids, our genetic material for us and these are DNA and RNA."},{"Start":"04:32.480 ","End":"04:33.845","Text":"Super important."},{"Start":"04:33.845 ","End":"04:38.340","Text":"These need to be maintained and remain."},{"Start":"04:38.510 ","End":"04:43.655","Text":"To have this, we need the overall process to be exergonic,"},{"Start":"04:43.655 ","End":"04:46.010","Text":"resulting in a negative Delta G,"},{"Start":"04:46.010 ","End":"04:48.880","Text":"thus allowing the cells to constantly maintain and"},{"Start":"04:48.880 ","End":"04:52.865","Text":"synthesize these polymers that are essential for life."},{"Start":"04:52.865 ","End":"04:55.970","Text":"A central issue in bioenergetics is the means by which energy from light or"},{"Start":"04:55.970 ","End":"04:59.510","Text":"chemical fuel is linked to the cell\u0027s energy requiring reactions."},{"Start":"04:59.510 ","End":"05:01.760","Text":"How this is cycled through the system,"},{"Start":"05:01.760 ","End":"05:03.140","Text":"as you can see in this figure,"},{"Start":"05:03.140 ","End":"05:05.835","Text":"the producers, like plants,"},{"Start":"05:05.835 ","End":"05:10.115","Text":"that use solar energy to create chemical energy,"},{"Start":"05:10.115 ","End":"05:14.000","Text":"which both they use and other organisms that consume the chemical energy they"},{"Start":"05:14.000 ","End":"05:19.200","Text":"release or by actual consumption of the producer eating it, use as well."},{"Start":"05:19.200 ","End":"05:22.070","Text":"Breathing the oxygen the plant release during"},{"Start":"05:22.070 ","End":"05:25.730","Text":"photosynthesis and then eating the plant to utilize its stored chemical energy,"},{"Start":"05:25.730 ","End":"05:32.340","Text":"glucose, fructose, etc., is a way that this energy moves through the system."},{"Start":"05:32.340 ","End":"05:36.020","Text":"Blue shows heat energy released from the system."},{"Start":"05:36.020 ","End":"05:37.580","Text":"Red is energy flowing through the system."},{"Start":"05:37.580 ","End":"05:39.410","Text":"You see that it is flowing."},{"Start":"05:39.410 ","End":"05:41.510","Text":"An important thing to understand is the amount of energy"},{"Start":"05:41.510 ","End":"05:43.580","Text":"available to do work is always less than"},{"Start":"05:43.580 ","End":"05:46.130","Text":"the theoretical amount of energy released because of"},{"Start":"05:46.130 ","End":"05:49.220","Text":"energy that is dissipated as the heat of friction."},{"Start":"05:49.220 ","End":"05:56.205","Text":"The idea that we mentioned before that this is not 100 percent efficient,"},{"Start":"05:56.205 ","End":"05:57.470","Text":"this conversion of energy,"},{"Start":"05:57.470 ","End":"06:03.155","Text":"some energy is lost through the process dissipated as the heat of friction."},{"Start":"06:03.155 ","End":"06:06.650","Text":"The amount of energy available to do work"},{"Start":"06:06.650 ","End":"06:10.070","Text":"is always less than the theoretical amount of energy released."},{"Start":"06:10.070 ","End":"06:14.375","Text":"It\u0027s touching up on the topic of equilibrium and closed systems,"},{"Start":"06:14.375 ","End":"06:19.145","Text":"chemical reactions proceed spontaneously until equilibrium is reached."},{"Start":"06:19.145 ","End":"06:22.620","Text":"A reminder, an open system,"},{"Start":"06:22.620 ","End":"06:24.053","Text":"these 2 examples,"},{"Start":"06:24.053 ","End":"06:25.915","Text":"are both open systems,"},{"Start":"06:25.915 ","End":"06:29.240","Text":"is one in which energy and matter are freely exchanged with the surrounding."},{"Start":"06:29.240 ","End":"06:32.690","Text":"You have vapor that can be released and you have heat that can be released."},{"Start":"06:32.690 ","End":"06:36.950","Text":"Whereas a closed system in which you see this beaker with"},{"Start":"06:36.950 ","End":"06:39.410","Text":"a stopper or the beaker with a stopper is"},{"Start":"06:39.410 ","End":"06:42.050","Text":"one in which energy is exchanged with surrounding,"},{"Start":"06:42.050 ","End":"06:44.405","Text":"heat can be released through the beaker,"},{"Start":"06:44.405 ","End":"06:46.900","Text":"but matter is not released."},{"Start":"06:46.900 ","End":"06:51.470","Text":"These block matter from actually exiting the beaker."},{"Start":"06:51.470 ","End":"06:54.095","Text":"When a system is at equilibrium,"},{"Start":"06:54.095 ","End":"06:56.720","Text":"the rate of product formation equals the rate at which"},{"Start":"06:56.720 ","End":"07:00.310","Text":"product is broken down to reactants."},{"Start":"07:00.310 ","End":"07:03.080","Text":"Again, equilibrium is the rate of"},{"Start":"07:03.080 ","End":"07:09.035","Text":"product formation equaling the rate at which product is broken down."},{"Start":"07:09.035 ","End":"07:14.550","Text":"You have product forming from reactants and products breaking down to reactants,"},{"Start":"07:14.550 ","End":"07:17.180","Text":"and when these are equal, that is equilibrium."},{"Start":"07:17.180 ","End":"07:21.275","Text":"There is no net change in concentration of reactants and products."},{"Start":"07:21.275 ","End":"07:22.715","Text":"They remain the same."},{"Start":"07:22.715 ","End":"07:25.310","Text":"The standard Gibbs free energy is a measure of how far"},{"Start":"07:25.310 ","End":"07:28.100","Text":"the standard state is from equilibrium."},{"Start":"07:28.100 ","End":"07:31.160","Text":"Again, the magnitude of standard Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"07:31.160 ","End":"07:33.660","Text":"the magnitude of this G,"},{"Start":"07:33.660 ","End":"07:37.205","Text":"is a measure of how far the standard state is from equilibrium,"},{"Start":"07:37.205 ","End":"07:40.175","Text":"how far the reaction is from reaching"},{"Start":"07:40.175 ","End":"07:45.620","Text":"this state of no net change between reactants and products."},{"Start":"07:45.620 ","End":"07:49.670","Text":"Now that we\u0027ve completed Part II of Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"07:49.670 ","End":"07:52.190","Text":"you should be able to define endergonic reactions and"},{"Start":"07:52.190 ","End":"07:55.505","Text":"exergonic reactions in reference to cell function,"},{"Start":"07:55.505 ","End":"07:57.980","Text":"state the common form of free energy in the cell and"},{"Start":"07:57.980 ","End":"08:01.820","Text":"relate equilibrium to Gibbs free energy."},{"Start":"08:01.820 ","End":"08:04.055","Text":"Upon completion of this lesson,"},{"Start":"08:04.055 ","End":"08:07.505","Text":"we can generally say that we\u0027ve learned how to explain Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"08:07.505 ","End":"08:09.410","Text":"understand the terms entropy and enthalpy,"},{"Start":"08:09.410 ","End":"08:13.880","Text":"and now we can clearly define endergonic reactions and exergonic reactions,"},{"Start":"08:13.880 ","End":"08:17.735","Text":"and how they relate to the biology of the cell."},{"Start":"08:17.735 ","End":"08:20.250","Text":"See you in the exercises."}],"ID":27043},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 13","Duration":"2m 20s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26156,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.380","Text":"Welcome to an exercise within Gibbs free energy on the topic of physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:04.380 ","End":"00:07.350","Text":"Name and define the 3 measures that were used by Gibbs to establish"},{"Start":"00:07.350 ","End":"00:11.700","Text":"the free energy constant G and the formula used to calculate it."},{"Start":"00:11.700 ","End":"00:14.430","Text":"Remember one we introduced in a previous section,"},{"Start":"00:14.430 ","End":"00:18.030","Text":"and one we are familiar with in general,"},{"Start":"00:18.030 ","End":"00:19.215","Text":"and one is a new one."},{"Start":"00:19.215 ","End":"00:22.650","Text":"So enthalpy, this is one of the new ones, H,"},{"Start":"00:22.650 ","End":"00:28.200","Text":"entropy S, and absolute temperature T. What these mean."},{"Start":"00:28.200 ","End":"00:33.090","Text":"Enthalpy, this reflects the numbers and kinds of bonds that exist."},{"Start":"00:33.090 ","End":"00:36.170","Text":"So how many bonds there are and what kinds of bonds,"},{"Start":"00:36.170 ","End":"00:37.910","Text":"because some bonds are stronger than others."},{"Start":"00:37.910 ","End":"00:42.530","Text":"So it represents how strong a certain structure is held together."},{"Start":"00:42.530 ","End":"00:44.160","Text":"Entropy, we talked about,"},{"Start":"00:44.160 ","End":"00:47.345","Text":"this is the randomness or disorder of components of a chemical system."},{"Start":"00:47.345 ","End":"00:48.785","Text":"The more random it is,"},{"Start":"00:48.785 ","End":"00:50.120","Text":"the bigger the entropy is,"},{"Start":"00:50.120 ","End":"00:51.590","Text":"or the bigger the entropy is,"},{"Start":"00:51.590 ","End":"00:52.790","Text":"the more random it is."},{"Start":"00:52.790 ","End":"00:57.890","Text":"An absolute temperature is the temperature as measured in Kelvin."},{"Start":"00:57.890 ","End":"00:59.810","Text":"Now the Gibbs free energy, G,"},{"Start":"00:59.810 ","End":"01:02.330","Text":"is defined as the difference between the enthalpy,"},{"Start":"01:02.330 ","End":"01:05.330","Text":"the strength of bonds and the number of bonds, and the entropy,"},{"Start":"01:05.330 ","End":"01:08.315","Text":"the randomness of a system at a given temperature."},{"Start":"01:08.315 ","End":"01:12.920","Text":"So in a certain system the free energy constant G,"},{"Start":"01:12.920 ","End":"01:16.250","Text":"relies on the strength of the structure,"},{"Start":"01:16.250 ","End":"01:18.545","Text":"how stable the structure is,"},{"Start":"01:18.545 ","End":"01:23.750","Text":"minus the entropy that structure has at a certain temperature."},{"Start":"01:23.750 ","End":"01:26.450","Text":"Because if the structure is very,"},{"Start":"01:26.450 ","End":"01:32.105","Text":"very stable and the entropy is very low,"},{"Start":"01:32.105 ","End":"01:36.965","Text":"then the Gibbs free energy will be bigger."},{"Start":"01:36.965 ","End":"01:39.410","Text":"Now if a chemical reaction occurs at constant temperature,"},{"Start":"01:39.410 ","End":"01:44.120","Text":"the free energy change Delta G is determined by the enthalpy change Delta H,"},{"Start":"01:44.120 ","End":"01:47.495","Text":"remember Delta stands for change,"},{"Start":"01:47.495 ","End":"01:50.220","Text":"enthalpy change, Delta H,"},{"Start":"01:50.220 ","End":"01:54.980","Text":"the kinds of numbers of chemical bonds and non-covalent interactions broken and formed,"},{"Start":"01:54.980 ","End":"01:58.635","Text":"the change in the bonds that are broken and formed,"},{"Start":"01:58.635 ","End":"02:00.905","Text":"and the entropy change Delta S,"},{"Start":"02:00.905 ","End":"02:02.960","Text":"the change in the system\u0027s randomness."},{"Start":"02:02.960 ","End":"02:05.975","Text":"So Delta G is determined by the difference between"},{"Start":"02:05.975 ","End":"02:09.980","Text":"the change in enthalpy in the bonds, that are broken and formed,"},{"Start":"02:09.980 ","End":"02:12.185","Text":"and the change in entropy,"},{"Start":"02:12.185 ","End":"02:17.810","Text":"the change in the randomness of the system at a given temperature."},{"Start":"02:17.810 ","End":"02:21.120","Text":"I will see you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27044},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 14","Duration":"1m 40s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26157,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:05.160","Text":"Welcome to the exercise in physical foundation covering the topic Gibbs free energy."},{"Start":"00:05.160 ","End":"00:10.500","Text":"State what type of reaction occurs in the different states of Delta G?"},{"Start":"00:10.500 ","End":"00:13.710","Text":"When Delta G is negative, when it\u0027s smaller than 0,"},{"Start":"00:13.710 ","End":"00:15.120","Text":"the reaction is favorable,"},{"Start":"00:15.120 ","End":"00:17.430","Text":"meaning it can occur spontaneously."},{"Start":"00:17.430 ","End":"00:19.695","Text":"Free energy is released in the process,"},{"Start":"00:19.695 ","End":"00:22.005","Text":"and it is an exergonic reaction."},{"Start":"00:22.005 ","End":"00:25.103","Text":"You have exergonic and we said,"},{"Start":"00:25.103 ","End":"00:30.012","Text":"exercise or exit energy is released to the environment,"},{"Start":"00:30.012 ","End":"00:34.490","Text":"that is something that occurs spontaneously."},{"Start":"00:34.490 ","End":"00:38.960","Text":"That\u0027s when Delta G is smaller than 0."},{"Start":"00:38.960 ","End":"00:41.660","Text":"The free energy is smaller than 0."},{"Start":"00:41.660 ","End":"00:43.670","Text":"When Delta G is bigger than 0,"},{"Start":"00:43.670 ","End":"00:45.230","Text":"Delta G is positive."},{"Start":"00:45.230 ","End":"00:49.940","Text":"The reaction is unfavorable and requires investment of energy, an endergonic reaction,"},{"Start":"00:49.940 ","End":"00:53.405","Text":"meaning the reaction will end unless"},{"Start":"00:53.405 ","End":"00:58.715","Text":"energy is invested in the system for the reaction to occur."},{"Start":"00:58.715 ","End":"01:02.490","Text":"Then we have Delta G that equals 0."},{"Start":"01:02.490 ","End":"01:04.820","Text":"In this case, the reaction is at equilibrium,"},{"Start":"01:04.820 ","End":"01:06.830","Text":"meaning that the rate of formation of products is equal"},{"Start":"01:06.830 ","End":"01:09.050","Text":"to the rate of formation of reactants,"},{"Start":"01:09.050 ","End":"01:12.365","Text":"so net change occurs in the concentrations of products and reactants."},{"Start":"01:12.365 ","End":"01:13.955","Text":"Let\u0027s go over this again."},{"Start":"01:13.955 ","End":"01:18.005","Text":"When Delta G is smaller than 0 gives free energy,"},{"Start":"01:18.005 ","End":"01:20.417","Text":"change value for reaction is less than 0,"},{"Start":"01:20.417 ","End":"01:23.570","Text":"negative, the reaction is favorable."},{"Start":"01:23.570 ","End":"01:25.925","Text":"When Delta G is bigger than 0,"},{"Start":"01:25.925 ","End":"01:29.166","Text":"the Gibbs free energy value is greater than 0 is positive,"},{"Start":"01:29.166 ","End":"01:32.110","Text":"the reaction is unfavorable,"},{"Start":"01:32.110 ","End":"01:33.975","Text":"even the 0 unfavorable,"},{"Start":"01:33.975 ","End":"01:36.854","Text":"and when Delta G equals 0,"},{"Start":"01:36.854 ","End":"01:38.550","Text":"it is at equilibrium."},{"Start":"01:38.550 ","End":"01:41.170","Text":"Let\u0027s move to the next exercise."}],"ID":27045},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 15","Duration":"3m 37s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26158,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:05.100","Text":"Moving along with exercise within Gibbs free energy and physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:05.100 ","End":"00:07.680","Text":"Which of the following comparisons or contrasts between"},{"Start":"00:07.680 ","End":"00:10.140","Text":"endergonic and exergonic reactions is false?"},{"Start":"00:10.140 ","End":"00:11.910","Text":"Remember endergonic and exergonic."},{"Start":"00:11.910 ","End":"00:15.540","Text":"Let\u0027s look just as hints, exer and end."},{"Start":"00:15.540 ","End":"00:19.515","Text":"Exer, exercise, exit, release energy."},{"Start":"00:19.515 ","End":"00:24.315","Text":"Endergonic, it will end unless we put in an energy."},{"Start":"00:24.315 ","End":"00:26.490","Text":"So a, endergonic reactions have"},{"Start":"00:26.490 ","End":"00:30.900","Text":"a positive Delta G and exergonic reactions have a negative Delta G,"},{"Start":"00:30.900 ","End":"00:38.835","Text":"that\u0027s a. Endergonic have positive Delta G and exergonic have negative Delta G. B,"},{"Start":"00:38.835 ","End":"00:45.090","Text":"endergonic reactions consume energy and exergonic reactions release energy."},{"Start":"00:45.090 ","End":"00:48.090","Text":"Endergonic reactions consume energy,"},{"Start":"00:48.090 ","End":"00:52.335","Text":"meaning energy is invested and exergonic reactions release energy to the surroundings."},{"Start":"00:52.335 ","End":"00:55.520","Text":"C, both endergonic and exergonic reactants require a small amount"},{"Start":"00:55.520 ","End":"00:59.390","Text":"of energy to overcome an activation barrier."},{"Start":"00:59.390 ","End":"01:05.120","Text":"So they both need energy to overcome an activation barrier."},{"Start":"01:05.120 ","End":"01:10.875","Text":"D, endergonic reactions take place slowly and exergonic reactions take place quickly."},{"Start":"01:10.875 ","End":"01:17.180","Text":"Endergonic reactions are slow and exergonic reactions are quick."},{"Start":"01:17.180 ","End":"01:21.610","Text":"Let\u0027s think of the things we talked about."},{"Start":"01:21.610 ","End":"01:24.485","Text":"Endergonic reactions have a positive Delta G,"},{"Start":"01:24.485 ","End":"01:26.900","Text":"meaning energy is invested,"},{"Start":"01:26.900 ","End":"01:29.885","Text":"the overall free energy is positive,"},{"Start":"01:29.885 ","End":"01:32.490","Text":"and exergonic reactants have a negative Delta G. Well,"},{"Start":"01:32.490 ","End":"01:34.920","Text":"this sounds true even looking here."},{"Start":"01:34.920 ","End":"01:36.465","Text":"This one rings true,"},{"Start":"01:36.465 ","End":"01:39.410","Text":"therefore it is not a false statement."},{"Start":"01:39.410 ","End":"01:42.965","Text":"This is incorrect because we\u0027re looking for something that\u0027s false."},{"Start":"01:42.965 ","End":"01:45.440","Text":"This is actually true."},{"Start":"01:45.440 ","End":"01:49.715","Text":"B, endergonic reactions consume energy and exergonic reactions release energy."},{"Start":"01:49.715 ","End":"01:52.380","Text":"Well again, reactions that are endergonic,"},{"Start":"01:52.380 ","End":"01:56.025","Text":"they will end if energy isn\u0027t invested, that\u0027s true."},{"Start":"01:56.025 ","End":"01:58.620","Text":"Exergonic reactions release energy."},{"Start":"01:58.620 ","End":"02:01.395","Text":"Energy is released when you\u0027re doing exercising,"},{"Start":"02:01.395 ","End":"02:04.320","Text":"energy and heat is released to the surroundings."},{"Start":"02:04.320 ","End":"02:06.480","Text":"This also is true."},{"Start":"02:06.480 ","End":"02:10.640","Text":"Therefore, it is an incorrect answer because it is true,"},{"Start":"02:10.640 ","End":"02:12.950","Text":"it is not a false statement. D is incorrect."},{"Start":"02:12.950 ","End":"02:15.680","Text":"Let\u0027s go to C. Both endergonic and exergonic reactions require"},{"Start":"02:15.680 ","End":"02:18.830","Text":"a small amount of energy to overcome an activation barrier."},{"Start":"02:18.830 ","End":"02:21.470","Text":"Well, we didn\u0027t really talk about this much,"},{"Start":"02:21.470 ","End":"02:24.815","Text":"but we did talk about it with enzymes and reactions that occur,"},{"Start":"02:24.815 ","End":"02:27.095","Text":"that there\u0027s always some activation barrier."},{"Start":"02:27.095 ","End":"02:28.630","Text":"We\u0027re not sure about this one,"},{"Start":"02:28.630 ","End":"02:30.970","Text":"let\u0027s move to D. Endergonic reactions take"},{"Start":"02:30.970 ","End":"02:33.545","Text":"place slowly and exergonic reactions take place quickly."},{"Start":"02:33.545 ","End":"02:39.500","Text":"Well, we didn\u0027t really specifically talk about speed either or the rate."},{"Start":"02:39.500 ","End":"02:46.205","Text":"Rate was not introduced into the equation when talking about Gibbs free energy."},{"Start":"02:46.205 ","End":"02:48.890","Text":"When we talked about Delta G,"},{"Start":"02:48.890 ","End":"02:54.070","Text":"we did not have rate introduced."},{"Start":"02:54.070 ","End":"02:56.539","Text":"Therefore, this sounds like it\u0027s false."},{"Start":"02:56.539 ","End":"02:59.735","Text":"Then when we go back to C, again,"},{"Start":"02:59.735 ","End":"03:03.645","Text":"you can also think of constant temperature,"},{"Start":"03:03.645 ","End":"03:05.225","Text":"there\u0027s always some energy."},{"Start":"03:05.225 ","End":"03:08.555","Text":"Enzymes need some energy and activation barrier."},{"Start":"03:08.555 ","End":"03:10.850","Text":"C sounds like it would be true,"},{"Start":"03:10.850 ","End":"03:14.410","Text":"therefore, C is not false,"},{"Start":"03:14.410 ","End":"03:17.510","Text":"and that leaves us with D. The false statement is"},{"Start":"03:17.510 ","End":"03:21.410","Text":"the endergonic reactions take place slowly and exergonic reactions take place quickly."},{"Start":"03:21.410 ","End":"03:26.600","Text":"What type of reaction does not indicate the rate at which the reactions take place?"},{"Start":"03:26.600 ","End":"03:28.505","Text":"If it\u0027s endergonic or exergonic,"},{"Start":"03:28.505 ","End":"03:32.884","Text":"it relates to the energy invested or released."},{"Start":"03:32.884 ","End":"03:35.360","Text":"Hopefully that was clear, and we will move forward."},{"Start":"03:35.360 ","End":"03:37.920","Text":"This one was a little tricky."}],"ID":27046},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 16","Duration":"2m 11s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26159,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.170 ","End":"00:02.820","Text":"Welcome back to another exercise testing"},{"Start":"00:02.820 ","End":"00:05.520","Text":"our knowledge and Gibbs free energy and physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:05.520 ","End":"00:08.940","Text":"What is the common source of free energy in the cell?"},{"Start":"00:08.940 ","End":"00:11.230","Text":"Well, this is a molecule we\u0027ve talked about,"},{"Start":"00:11.230 ","End":"00:14.789","Text":"the concepts of free energy in the cell is ATP."},{"Start":"00:14.789 ","End":"00:18.720","Text":"The cell commonly derives energy from the breakage of bonds such as an ATP,"},{"Start":"00:18.720 ","End":"00:23.940","Text":"adenosine triphosphate, and GTP, guanosine triphosphate,"},{"Start":"00:23.940 ","End":"00:27.000","Text":"and when we looked at this little illustration here,"},{"Start":"00:27.000 ","End":"00:31.335","Text":"we looked at ATP the anhydrite bond between"},{"Start":"00:31.335 ","End":"00:33.840","Text":"the 2 phosphates broken energy is released and it"},{"Start":"00:33.840 ","End":"00:36.525","Text":"becomes a diphosphate instead of a triphosphate."},{"Start":"00:36.525 ","End":"00:40.095","Text":"To create this triphosphate, again,"},{"Start":"00:40.095 ","End":"00:44.125","Text":"adding this phosphate energy needs to be invested,"},{"Start":"00:44.125 ","End":"00:53.935","Text":"and for organisms that are chemoheterotrophs that rely on chemical fuel being consumed,"},{"Start":"00:53.935 ","End":"00:56.375","Text":"it will be in the form of food, for example,"},{"Start":"00:56.375 ","End":"01:00.410","Text":"they need this in order to create ATP from ADP."},{"Start":"01:00.410 ","End":"01:04.565","Text":"So the common source of free energy in the cell is ATP,"},{"Start":"01:04.565 ","End":"01:06.890","Text":"or an alternative to that,"},{"Start":"01:06.890 ","End":"01:08.915","Text":"as mentioned, is GTP."},{"Start":"01:08.915 ","End":"01:13.100","Text":"That specific bond that is broken is a phosphoanhydride bond."},{"Start":"01:13.100 ","End":"01:15.440","Text":"This is the bond between the 2 phosphates."},{"Start":"01:15.440 ","End":"01:19.595","Text":"The cell combines the breaking of such bond between 2 phosphates and ATP, for example,"},{"Start":"01:19.595 ","End":"01:23.917","Text":"resulting in ADP triphosphate versus diphosphate,"},{"Start":"01:23.917 ","End":"01:28.400","Text":"triphosphate diphosphate, or in the breaking of 2 such bonds,"},{"Start":"01:28.400 ","End":"01:31.325","Text":"resulting in AMP monophosphate"},{"Start":"01:31.325 ","End":"01:35.315","Text":"allowing the needed energy to build necessary complex molecules,"},{"Start":"01:35.315 ","End":"01:38.585","Text":"such as proteins from amino acids or nucleic acids from nucleotides."},{"Start":"01:38.585 ","End":"01:41.330","Text":"Remember we talked about amino acids and nucleotides are"},{"Start":"01:41.330 ","End":"01:46.415","Text":"monomers and when they are linked together, they form polymers."},{"Start":"01:46.415 ","End":"01:48.920","Text":"This requires an investment of energy."},{"Start":"01:48.920 ","End":"01:51.320","Text":"Therefore, they\u0027re part of the cycle of"},{"Start":"01:51.320 ","End":"01:55.280","Text":"the ATP ADP cycle where energy is released and it\u0027s super"},{"Start":"01:55.280 ","End":"01:58.160","Text":"important to have these in order to build"},{"Start":"01:58.160 ","End":"02:01.640","Text":"necessarily complex molecules as proteins and nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"02:01.640 ","End":"02:07.850","Text":"which we said are the most common polymers or the most common biomolecules in the cell."},{"Start":"02:07.850 ","End":"02:09.650","Text":"With that we are done,"},{"Start":"02:09.650 ","End":"02:12.329","Text":"and I will see you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27047},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 17","Duration":"3m 43s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26160,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.530","Text":"Let\u0027s go through another exercise covering Gibbs free energy within physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:04.530 ","End":"00:06.405","Text":"Which statement is true?"},{"Start":"00:06.405 ","End":"00:08.004","Text":"We have false statement a,"},{"Start":"00:08.004 ","End":"00:10.020","Text":"the amount of energy available to do"},{"Start":"00:10.020 ","End":"00:13.830","Text":"work is equal to the theoretical amount of energy released."},{"Start":"00:13.830 ","End":"00:17.280","Text":"B, the amount of energy available to do work is equal"},{"Start":"00:17.280 ","End":"00:21.014","Text":"to Gibbs free energy this is G. C,"},{"Start":"00:21.014 ","End":"00:23.750","Text":"the amount of energy available to do work is less"},{"Start":"00:23.750 ","End":"00:26.790","Text":"than the theoretical amount of energy released."},{"Start":"00:26.790 ","End":"00:29.330","Text":"D, the amount of energy available to do work is not"},{"Start":"00:29.330 ","End":"00:32.480","Text":"related to the theoretical amount of energy released."},{"Start":"00:32.480 ","End":"00:34.520","Text":"Let\u0027s go through this."},{"Start":"00:34.520 ","End":"00:36.365","Text":"The amount of energy available to do work is"},{"Start":"00:36.365 ","End":"00:38.630","Text":"equal to the theoretical amount of energy released."},{"Start":"00:38.630 ","End":"00:41.180","Text":"We talked about this in a couple of different ways."},{"Start":"00:41.180 ","End":"00:47.390","Text":"1 saying that the production or consumption or the reuse and recycling of energy."},{"Start":"00:47.390 ","End":"00:50.210","Text":"When we talk this within the laws of thermodynamics."},{"Start":"00:50.210 ","End":"00:55.160","Text":"The first law of thermodynamics we say that energy basically remains in the system."},{"Start":"00:55.160 ","End":"00:58.805","Text":"It\u0027s not recreated or destroyed, it\u0027s just transformed."},{"Start":"00:58.805 ","End":"01:01.055","Text":"Yet we said it\u0027s not 100 percent efficient."},{"Start":"01:01.055 ","End":"01:03.574","Text":"Therefore, we can say,"},{"Start":"01:03.574 ","End":"01:06.950","Text":"and this was said in this Gibbs free energy section that"},{"Start":"01:06.950 ","End":"01:10.850","Text":"the amount of energy available to do work is not exactly equal to"},{"Start":"01:10.850 ","End":"01:14.510","Text":"the theoretical amount of energy released because we said it\u0027s not 100 percent efficient"},{"Start":"01:14.510 ","End":"01:18.318","Text":"when he referred to the first law of thermodynamics."},{"Start":"01:18.318 ","End":"01:20.675","Text":"When we talked about Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"01:20.675 ","End":"01:23.960","Text":"we mentioned that there is friction where"},{"Start":"01:23.960 ","End":"01:28.580","Text":"energy is lost to this friction and therefore they are not the same."},{"Start":"01:28.580 ","End":"01:30.395","Text":"So I would say that a is not true."},{"Start":"01:30.395 ","End":"01:33.650","Text":"B. the amount of energy available to do work is equal to Gibbs free energy."},{"Start":"01:33.650 ","End":"01:39.920","Text":"so we talked about Gibbs free energy being dependent on 2 factors."},{"Start":"01:39.920 ","End":"01:44.630","Text":"We have enthalpy, which represents the strength of the structure the stability of it,"},{"Start":"01:44.630 ","End":"01:46.490","Text":"the strength and number of bonds,"},{"Start":"01:46.490 ","End":"01:49.115","Text":"basically the type of bonds and the number of them."},{"Start":"01:49.115 ","End":"01:51.670","Text":"As well as entropy."},{"Start":"01:51.670 ","End":"01:55.565","Text":"This is the level of randomness of disorder."},{"Start":"01:55.565 ","End":"01:58.820","Text":"so these things are what effect Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"01:58.820 ","End":"02:05.420","Text":"and these can change and affect the amount of energy available to do work."},{"Start":"02:05.420 ","End":"02:10.940","Text":"Therefore, this is not true because this is not"},{"Start":"02:10.940 ","End":"02:16.865","Text":"equal to the amount of energy available to do work for this is incorrect."},{"Start":"02:16.865 ","End":"02:19.310","Text":"Going to c. The amount of energy available to do work is"},{"Start":"02:19.310 ","End":"02:21.890","Text":"less than theoretical amount of energy released."},{"Start":"02:21.890 ","End":"02:25.310","Text":"Well, as I stated before and as we covered a couple of times,"},{"Start":"02:25.310 ","End":"02:28.040","Text":"what we know is that this seems to be true"},{"Start":"02:28.040 ","End":"02:32.930","Text":"because the amount of actual energy available to do work"},{"Start":"02:32.930 ","End":"02:36.830","Text":"is less than the theoretical amount because of the sum of"},{"Start":"02:36.830 ","End":"02:41.225","Text":"energy that is dissipated as the heat of friction."},{"Start":"02:41.225 ","End":"02:43.130","Text":"Therefore, this seems to be true."},{"Start":"02:43.130 ","End":"02:46.850","Text":"Let\u0027s check d. The amount of energy available to"},{"Start":"02:46.850 ","End":"02:50.840","Text":"do work is not related to a theoretical amount of energy released."},{"Start":"02:50.840 ","End":"02:52.880","Text":"Well, it is related,"},{"Start":"02:52.880 ","End":"02:57.740","Text":"but theoretical amount of energy release is based on some calculation on"},{"Start":"02:57.740 ","End":"03:03.830","Text":"known amount of either ATP that are provided or heat that is invested,"},{"Start":"03:03.830 ","End":"03:05.315","Text":"so there is a theoretical amount."},{"Start":"03:05.315 ","End":"03:10.535","Text":"We just know that it translates to energy that is available to do work."},{"Start":"03:10.535 ","End":"03:13.670","Text":"Yet it is not equal,"},{"Start":"03:13.670 ","End":"03:16.660","Text":"but it is related."},{"Start":"03:16.910 ","End":"03:22.130","Text":"The theoretical amount of energy is a little bigger than the energy available to do work."},{"Start":"03:22.130 ","End":"03:25.595","Text":"They are related, therefore d is false."},{"Start":"03:25.595 ","End":"03:27.530","Text":"That leaves us with c that is correct."},{"Start":"03:27.530 ","End":"03:29.150","Text":"The amount of energy available to do work is"},{"Start":"03:29.150 ","End":"03:31.160","Text":"less than the theoretical amount of energy released."},{"Start":"03:31.160 ","End":"03:36.485","Text":"Again, that is because of energy that is lost in the form of heat of friction."},{"Start":"03:36.485 ","End":"03:43.469","Text":"From here, we can move on to the next section or another exercise."}],"ID":27048},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Equilibrium Constant part 1","Duration":"9m 13s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26161,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.910","Text":"Hi, there. Welcome to physical foundation where we will be"},{"Start":"00:02.910 ","End":"00:05.805","Text":"talking about the equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"00:05.805 ","End":"00:08.880","Text":"By the end of this section, you\u0027ll be able to define the equilibrium"},{"Start":"00:08.880 ","End":"00:12.435","Text":"constant and its significance with regard to spontaneous reactions,"},{"Start":"00:12.435 ","End":"00:16.440","Text":"understand the relationship between the equilibrium constant and Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"00:16.440 ","End":"00:19.905","Text":"and know the formulas for calculating the equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"00:19.905 ","End":"00:25.800","Text":"Now there\u0027s a lot of information and we will split this into 2 parts."},{"Start":"00:25.800 ","End":"00:28.335","Text":"In the first part of the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"00:28.335 ","End":"00:31.860","Text":"we will specifically cover the definition of the equilibrium constant"},{"Start":"00:31.860 ","End":"00:35.605","Text":"and its significance with regard to directionality of reactions."},{"Start":"00:35.605 ","End":"00:37.370","Text":"We will understand the significance of"},{"Start":"00:37.370 ","End":"00:39.800","Text":"the magnitude of the equilibrium constant with regard to"},{"Start":"00:39.800 ","End":"00:44.180","Text":"the reaction and know the formula for calculating the equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"00:44.180 ","End":"00:46.220","Text":"Let\u0027s start with Part I."},{"Start":"00:46.220 ","End":"00:49.280","Text":"The magnitude of the standard Gibbs free energy is a measure of"},{"Start":"00:49.280 ","End":"00:52.565","Text":"how far the standard state is from equilibrium."},{"Start":"00:52.565 ","End":"00:54.335","Text":"We talked about equilibrium."},{"Start":"00:54.335 ","End":"01:00.239","Text":"It\u0027s where you have the products and reactants at this stable change,"},{"Start":"01:00.239 ","End":"01:08.955","Text":"that there\u0027s a stable somewhat concentration on both sides of the reactants and products."},{"Start":"01:08.955 ","End":"01:13.355","Text":"Again, I will go into this and explain this later."},{"Start":"01:13.355 ","End":"01:18.530","Text":"For the reaction in which A reacts with B to give C and D,"},{"Start":"01:18.530 ","End":"01:25.325","Text":"so we have here reactants and we have here products."},{"Start":"01:25.325 ","End":"01:27.170","Text":"When we were looking at such a reaction,"},{"Start":"01:27.170 ","End":"01:31.430","Text":"we have A and B that react together to result in C"},{"Start":"01:31.430 ","End":"01:36.439","Text":"and D and actually expressing it in a more accurate form."},{"Start":"01:36.439 ","End":"01:41.390","Text":"We have A and B reacting and creating C and D. But C"},{"Start":"01:41.390 ","End":"01:46.535","Text":"and D can also react and create A and B."},{"Start":"01:46.535 ","End":"01:51.590","Text":"This can be with examples that we talked about, monomers and polymers."},{"Start":"01:51.590 ","End":"01:58.870","Text":"So if you have monomers to create a polymer and some side extra molecule,"},{"Start":"01:58.870 ","End":"02:01.570","Text":"they can also be broken apart and returned."},{"Start":"02:01.570 ","End":"02:04.140","Text":"So this could be bidirectional."},{"Start":"02:04.140 ","End":"02:09.520","Text":"For this reaction where you have A reacting with B and C reacting with D,"},{"Start":"02:09.520 ","End":"02:12.550","Text":"the equilibrium constant and this is how it\u0027s written."},{"Start":"02:12.550 ","End":"02:14.800","Text":"Equilibrium will be short,"},{"Start":"02:14.800 ","End":"02:16.570","Text":"written in short eq,"},{"Start":"02:16.570 ","End":"02:21.550","Text":"subscript eq by K. K is the constant of equilibrium."},{"Start":"02:21.550 ","End":"02:25.825","Text":"The formula is taking the products,"},{"Start":"02:25.825 ","End":"02:28.810","Text":"C and D over A and B."},{"Start":"02:28.810 ","End":"02:32.620","Text":"So it\u0027s the concentrations of C and D over A and B."},{"Start":"02:32.620 ","End":"02:38.580","Text":"Now if you\u0027ve seen where sometimes these formulas are written like this,"},{"Start":"02:38.580 ","End":"02:42.320","Text":"I am not introducing this complexity right now."},{"Start":"02:42.320 ","End":"02:43.910","Text":"Hopefully, we haven\u0027t covered this."},{"Start":"02:43.910 ","End":"02:46.550","Text":"But hopefully you remember from chemistry there\u0027s a thing called"},{"Start":"02:46.550 ","End":"02:50.884","Text":"moles and it\u0027s basically an amount of a molecule."},{"Start":"02:50.884 ","End":"02:54.945","Text":"Actually, these represent the moles."},{"Start":"02:54.945 ","End":"03:01.730","Text":"You have a certain number of a moles of the reactant A and b moles of"},{"Start":"03:01.730 ","End":"03:04.970","Text":"B result in c moles of C and d moles of"},{"Start":"03:04.970 ","End":"03:06.800","Text":"D. These will come into calculation when"},{"Start":"03:06.800 ","End":"03:08.780","Text":"we\u0027re asked to do the calculation of the equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"03:08.780 ","End":"03:09.980","Text":"But right now I\u0027m not diving into it."},{"Start":"03:09.980 ","End":"03:12.215","Text":"I\u0027m just saying if you see this, this is what it is."},{"Start":"03:12.215 ","End":"03:14.050","Text":"We are now dealing with this."},{"Start":"03:14.050 ","End":"03:16.850","Text":"When you see brackets like this,"},{"Start":"03:16.850 ","End":"03:20.795","Text":"square brackets, that denotes concentration."},{"Start":"03:20.795 ","End":"03:23.945","Text":"If I have this, this is the substance X."},{"Start":"03:23.945 ","End":"03:25.145","Text":"When I say this,"},{"Start":"03:25.145 ","End":"03:28.890","Text":"it means the concentration of the substance X."},{"Start":"03:29.560 ","End":"03:33.020","Text":"If we are looking at the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"03:33.020 ","End":"03:36.560","Text":"how we generally would calculate it is the concentrations of"},{"Start":"03:36.560 ","End":"03:41.419","Text":"the products C and D over the concentrations of the products A and B at equilibrium."},{"Start":"03:41.419 ","End":"03:44.750","Text":"Now, when the equilibrium constant is bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"03:44.750 ","End":"03:50.465","Text":"the reaction proceeds spontaneously to form C and D. Flipping here,"},{"Start":"03:50.465 ","End":"03:52.535","Text":"what happens is this."},{"Start":"03:52.535 ","End":"03:54.905","Text":"This will be favorable."},{"Start":"03:54.905 ","End":"04:00.330","Text":"So A and B will move from left to right as written here,"},{"Start":"04:00.330 ","End":"04:04.430","Text":"and C and D will be formed spontaneously."},{"Start":"04:04.430 ","End":"04:07.940","Text":"Furthermore, the larger the equilibrium constant is,"},{"Start":"04:07.940 ","End":"04:10.790","Text":"the larger K bigger,"},{"Start":"04:10.790 ","End":"04:14.390","Text":"the larger the K_eq is from 1,"},{"Start":"04:14.390 ","End":"04:18.770","Text":"the greater the tendency of the reactants in the reaction to be converted into products."},{"Start":"04:18.770 ","End":"04:20.210","Text":"Meaning not only this,"},{"Start":"04:20.210 ","End":"04:22.820","Text":"but it\u0027s really going to the right."},{"Start":"04:22.820 ","End":"04:27.260","Text":"So you\u0027re getting a lot of C and D, it\u0027s favored."},{"Start":"04:27.260 ","End":"04:32.000","Text":"The greater the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"04:32.000 ","End":"04:34.475","Text":"the more product will form."},{"Start":"04:34.475 ","End":"04:36.635","Text":"On the other hand, when K equilibrium,"},{"Start":"04:36.635 ","End":"04:38.830","Text":"the equilibrium constant is smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"04:38.830 ","End":"04:41.840","Text":"the reaction favors the formation of A and B,"},{"Start":"04:41.840 ","End":"04:47.165","Text":"meaning these products are actually going to break apart"},{"Start":"04:47.165 ","End":"04:53.015","Text":"or reverse and go from the right to the left as written,"},{"Start":"04:53.015 ","End":"04:57.450","Text":"where C and D actually form A and B,"},{"Start":"04:57.450 ","End":"04:59.525","Text":"and this is what\u0027s favored."},{"Start":"04:59.525 ","End":"05:03.080","Text":"When you have equilibrium constant bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"05:03.080 ","End":"05:06.870","Text":"you will have this reaction going from left to"},{"Start":"05:06.870 ","End":"05:11.510","Text":"right and when K _equilibrium is smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"05:11.510 ","End":"05:15.320","Text":"you will have the reaction going from right to left."},{"Start":"05:15.320 ","End":"05:19.400","Text":"Now if the equilibrium constant is 1 or nearly 1."},{"Start":"05:19.400 ","End":"05:21.125","Text":"If we have this,"},{"Start":"05:21.125 ","End":"05:23.900","Text":"it\u0027s either 1 or nearly 1,"},{"Start":"05:23.900 ","End":"05:27.220","Text":"it indicates that the concentration of the reactants and"},{"Start":"05:27.220 ","End":"05:31.090","Text":"products are about the same [inaudible] an equal amount."},{"Start":"05:31.090 ","End":"05:35.905","Text":"More specifically, molarities will be similar between the 2 sides,"},{"Start":"05:35.905 ","End":"05:37.750","Text":"but we haven\u0027t really covered that term yet,"},{"Start":"05:37.750 ","End":"05:39.925","Text":"so just throwing it out there."},{"Start":"05:39.925 ","End":"05:42.805","Text":"But we basically will see that"},{"Start":"05:42.805 ","End":"05:47.980","Text":"the concentrations or molarities of the reactants and products are about the same."},{"Start":"05:47.980 ","End":"05:55.150","Text":"Now we will go into practicing such calculations in a later time in a later session."},{"Start":"05:55.150 ","End":"05:58.105","Text":"Going back to what we started the lesson with,"},{"Start":"05:58.105 ","End":"06:00.670","Text":"the magnitude of the standard Gibbs free energy is"},{"Start":"06:00.670 ","End":"06:03.745","Text":"a measure of how far the standard state is from equilibrium."},{"Start":"06:03.745 ","End":"06:05.960","Text":"The tendency, in other words,"},{"Start":"06:05.960 ","End":"06:11.840","Text":"of a chemical reaction to go to completion can be expressed as an equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"06:11.840 ","End":"06:13.520","Text":"I know this can be a little confusing,"},{"Start":"06:13.520 ","End":"06:18.000","Text":"but just bear with me and hopefully you\u0027ll understand it the more we explain it."},{"Start":"06:18.000 ","End":"06:20.720","Text":"Gibbs showed that Delta G for any chemical reaction is a function of"},{"Start":"06:20.720 ","End":"06:25.339","Text":"the standard free energy change and is depicted by Delta G^0."},{"Start":"06:25.339 ","End":"06:27.565","Text":"Standard free energy change,"},{"Start":"06:27.565 ","End":"06:30.000","Text":"Delta G^0, it\u0027s a constant."},{"Start":"06:30.000 ","End":"06:35.210","Text":"What it\u0027s saying is that Delta G for a specific reaction will"},{"Start":"06:35.210 ","End":"06:40.395","Text":"have an actual constant, this Delta G^0."},{"Start":"06:40.395 ","End":"06:45.020","Text":"It is characteristic of each specific reaction and a term that expresses"},{"Start":"06:45.020 ","End":"06:51.120","Text":"the initial concentrations of reactants and products is Delta G with this formula."},{"Start":"06:51.120 ","End":"06:54.620","Text":"You have Delta G and taking into"},{"Start":"06:54.620 ","End":"06:58.175","Text":"account initial concentrations of reactants and products."},{"Start":"06:58.175 ","End":"07:06.830","Text":"Remember if we had that reaction where A plus B react to give C plus D,"},{"Start":"07:06.830 ","End":"07:12.710","Text":"what you have here is the concentration of C and D over A and"},{"Start":"07:12.710 ","End":"07:19.895","Text":"B natural log of this in this formula plus the standard free energy constant,"},{"Start":"07:19.895 ","End":"07:23.000","Text":"standard free energy change constant Delta G^0,"},{"Start":"07:23.000 ","End":"07:29.750","Text":"that gives Delta G. The subscript i denotes initial concentration."},{"Start":"07:29.750 ","End":"07:35.240","Text":"A in square brackets with a small subscript of i is the initial concentration of A."},{"Start":"07:35.240 ","End":"07:40.505","Text":"The initial concentration of A for the reaction right when it begins."},{"Start":"07:40.505 ","End":"07:45.545","Text":"R is the gas constant and it\u0027s 8.314 joules"},{"Start":"07:45.545 ","End":"07:51.330","Text":"per mole K. R is the gas constant."},{"Start":"07:51.330 ","End":"07:55.760","Text":"T is the absolute temperature."},{"Start":"07:55.760 ","End":"08:02.000","Text":"I know we talked about T before with being in kelvin absolute temperature."},{"Start":"08:02.000 ","End":"08:04.145","Text":"We talked about this in the previous section."},{"Start":"08:04.145 ","End":"08:08.150","Text":"Again, i denotes initial concentration."},{"Start":"08:08.150 ","End":"08:14.915","Text":"R is the gas constant and T is the absolute temperature."},{"Start":"08:14.915 ","End":"08:19.415","Text":"I will not explain the details of the formula further at this point,"},{"Start":"08:19.415 ","End":"08:21.965","Text":"but recognize this formula."},{"Start":"08:21.965 ","End":"08:25.220","Text":"Remember Delta G gives change of"},{"Start":"08:25.220 ","End":"08:28.580","Text":"any reaction is dependent on the standard free energy change,"},{"Start":"08:28.580 ","End":"08:31.325","Text":"Delta G^0, that is specific to each reaction."},{"Start":"08:31.325 ","End":"08:33.665","Text":"Each reaction will have this specifically."},{"Start":"08:33.665 ","End":"08:37.310","Text":"There is a table and a list of the Delta G^0,"},{"Start":"08:37.310 ","End":"08:40.535","Text":"the standard free energy change for each reaction."},{"Start":"08:40.535 ","End":"08:44.300","Text":"You would put that in with having the gas"},{"Start":"08:44.300 ","End":"08:47.030","Text":"constant and then the temperature"},{"Start":"08:47.030 ","End":"08:50.360","Text":"and the initial concentrations of the products and reactants."},{"Start":"08:50.360 ","End":"08:56.780","Text":"Now that we\u0027ve completed Part I of the equilibrium constant within physical foundation,"},{"Start":"08:56.780 ","End":"08:59.930","Text":"we should be able to know and define the equilibrium constant and"},{"Start":"08:59.930 ","End":"09:03.500","Text":"its significance with regard to directionality of reactions,"},{"Start":"09:03.500 ","End":"09:05.720","Text":"understand the significance of the magnitude of"},{"Start":"09:05.720 ","End":"09:07.970","Text":"the equilibrium constant with regard to the reaction,"},{"Start":"09:07.970 ","End":"09:10.770","Text":"and know the formula for calculating the equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"09:10.770 ","End":"09:14.520","Text":"From here, we will meet again in Part II."}],"ID":27049},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Equilibrium Constant part 2","Duration":"9m 37s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26162,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.530","Text":"Welcome back to Physical Foundation talking about the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"00:04.530 ","End":"00:06.000","Text":"this is Part II."},{"Start":"00:06.000 ","End":"00:07.050","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:07.050 ","End":"00:10.350","Text":"you should be able to specifically understand the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"00:10.350 ","End":"00:15.840","Text":"and know and understand the formula for calculating Delta G of reaction in equilibrium."},{"Start":"00:15.840 ","End":"00:18.480","Text":"Stepping back and looking at the concepts."},{"Start":"00:18.480 ","End":"00:22.875","Text":"Delta G is a measure of the distance of a system from its equilibrium."},{"Start":"00:22.875 ","End":"00:28.800","Text":"Hopefully, by now that\u0027s been regurgitated and it\u0027s set in your mind."},{"Start":"00:28.800 ","End":"00:33.615","Text":"Delta G is a measure of the distance of a system from its equilibrium."},{"Start":"00:33.615 ","End":"00:36.800","Text":"When a reaction reaches equilibrium,"},{"Start":"00:36.800 ","End":"00:41.420","Text":"no driving force remains and it can do no work and Delta G=0,"},{"Start":"00:41.420 ","End":"00:43.310","Text":"so a reaction reach equilibrium,"},{"Start":"00:43.310 ","End":"00:45.170","Text":"you have this equal concentration,"},{"Start":"00:45.170 ","End":"00:48.140","Text":"there\u0027s no natural driving source to cause the reaction to"},{"Start":"00:48.140 ","End":"00:51.295","Text":"go either left to right or right to left and Delta G is zero."},{"Start":"00:51.295 ","End":"00:55.775","Text":"For the special case where initial concentration of A equals"},{"Start":"00:55.775 ","End":"01:01.865","Text":"the concentration of A in equilibrium and same for all the reactants and products."},{"Start":"01:01.865 ","End":"01:03.350","Text":"What you see here,"},{"Start":"01:03.350 ","End":"01:10.610","Text":"just remember I stands for initial concentration and eq stands for equilibrium."},{"Start":"01:10.610 ","End":"01:12.785","Text":"For this special case,"},{"Start":"01:12.785 ","End":"01:20.210","Text":"you have the initial concentrations and the equilibrium concentrations being the same."},{"Start":"01:20.210 ","End":"01:27.535","Text":"You can say that since an equilibrium Delta G=0,"},{"Start":"01:27.535 ","End":"01:31.900","Text":"substituting 0 for Delta G."},{"Start":"01:31.900 ","End":"01:38.520","Text":"Since K equilibrium is equal to this."},{"Start":"01:38.520 ","End":"01:44.045","Text":"This is K equilibrium, the equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"01:44.045 ","End":"01:49.159","Text":"Substituting the equilibrium constant for this,"},{"Start":"01:49.159 ","End":"01:52.055","Text":"it results in the following equation."},{"Start":"01:52.055 ","End":"02:01.700","Text":"You have Delta G for the reaction equals minus RT natural log of K equilibrium."},{"Start":"02:01.700 ","End":"02:03.230","Text":"Where does this formula come from?"},{"Start":"02:03.230 ","End":"02:05.635","Text":"Let\u0027s step back a second."},{"Start":"02:05.635 ","End":"02:10.540","Text":"Remember, we said that we have this formula."},{"Start":"02:10.540 ","End":"02:13.010","Text":"We have Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"02:13.010 ","End":"02:18.710","Text":"the Gibbs free energy change for this specific reaction times the gas constant,"},{"Start":"02:18.710 ","End":"02:24.200","Text":"the absolute temperature, and the natural log of the initial concentrations."},{"Start":"02:24.200 ","End":"02:27.785","Text":"Now we said that these are equal each other."},{"Start":"02:27.785 ","End":"02:30.155","Text":"These are the same,"},{"Start":"02:30.155 ","End":"02:33.350","Text":"the initial concentration versus the concentrations at equilibrium."},{"Start":"02:33.350 ","End":"02:38.795","Text":"Therefore, we are substituting these and putting this in there."},{"Start":"02:38.795 ","End":"02:43.250","Text":"Now because this equals the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"02:43.250 ","End":"02:45.440","Text":"we can substitute this."},{"Start":"02:45.440 ","End":"02:50.900","Text":"We can take this, substitute this here."},{"Start":"02:50.900 ","End":"02:53.180","Text":"Then it basically would be the same,"},{"Start":"02:53.180 ","End":"02:57.185","Text":"but instead of I, it would be small subscript of eq."},{"Start":"02:57.185 ","End":"02:59.570","Text":"But then we\u0027re taking this out completely."},{"Start":"02:59.570 ","End":"03:03.905","Text":"Instead, because this equals K equilibrium,"},{"Start":"03:03.905 ","End":"03:06.580","Text":"we will put K equilibrium here."},{"Start":"03:06.580 ","End":"03:09.903","Text":"What you have now is"},{"Start":"03:09.903 ","End":"03:17.855","Text":"natural log of K equilibrium times the gas constant and absolute temperature."},{"Start":"03:17.855 ","End":"03:23.105","Text":"Now we said that Delta G=0."},{"Start":"03:23.105 ","End":"03:24.770","Text":"Now what you can do,"},{"Start":"03:24.770 ","End":"03:26.359","Text":"and this is just algebra."},{"Start":"03:26.359 ","End":"03:30.080","Text":"If you would actually move these apart,"},{"Start":"03:30.080 ","End":"03:32.870","Text":"you can now say Delta G,"},{"Start":"03:32.870 ","End":"03:35.435","Text":"if you move it to a different side,"},{"Start":"03:35.435 ","End":"03:39.860","Text":"it switches from plus to minus or minus to plus."},{"Start":"03:39.860 ","End":"03:47.630","Text":"We can move Delta G^0 and say it\u0027s minus Delta G=RT natural log of K equilibrium."},{"Start":"03:47.630 ","End":"03:50.300","Text":"We want actually Delta G to be positive."},{"Start":"03:50.300 ","End":"03:52.595","Text":"What we do is we actually will move"},{"Start":"03:52.595 ","End":"03:58.910","Text":"the RT natural log of the k equilibrium to the other side and it becomes negative."},{"Start":"03:58.910 ","End":"04:02.404","Text":"Therefore, that is how we result with this formula."},{"Start":"04:02.404 ","End":"04:08.060","Text":"Delta G^0=negative RT natural log of K equilibrium."},{"Start":"04:08.060 ","End":"04:10.640","Text":"Showing how the standard Gibbs free energy is"},{"Start":"04:10.640 ","End":"04:13.685","Text":"directly linked to a reaction\u0027s equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"04:13.685 ","End":"04:17.690","Text":"The equilibrium constant is thus a measure of the directionality of"},{"Start":"04:17.690 ","End":"04:22.280","Text":"the reaction under standard conditions as defined above,"},{"Start":"04:22.280 ","End":"04:26.300","Text":"the tendency of a chemical reaction to go to completion."},{"Start":"04:26.300 ","End":"04:30.619","Text":"In other words, Delta G^0 is another way besides"},{"Start":"04:30.619 ","End":"04:35.930","Text":"the equilibrium constant of expressing the driving force on a reaction."},{"Start":"04:35.930 ","End":"04:38.735","Text":"We have Delta G^0 equals this."},{"Start":"04:38.735 ","End":"04:42.920","Text":"This is another way of expressing the driving force on a reaction."},{"Start":"04:42.920 ","End":"04:45.400","Text":"If it will go to completion."},{"Start":"04:45.400 ","End":"04:50.015","Text":"The equilibrium constant is experimentally measurable,"},{"Start":"04:50.015 ","End":"04:53.405","Text":"thus enables the calculation of Delta G^0,"},{"Start":"04:53.405 ","End":"04:56.060","Text":"which as the standard free energy change."},{"Start":"04:56.060 ","End":"04:59.045","Text":"This is the standard free energy change."},{"Start":"04:59.045 ","End":"05:01.610","Text":"The standard free energy change is"},{"Start":"05:01.610 ","End":"05:06.945","Text":"the thermodynamic constant characteristic of each reaction."},{"Start":"05:06.945 ","End":"05:10.460","Text":"Reminding you that energy translates to temperature, heat,"},{"Start":"05:10.460 ","End":"05:17.075","Text":"and reaction as given with the example of alcohol in the previous section, is work."},{"Start":"05:17.075 ","End":"05:23.135","Text":"Thermodynamic means, temperature and dynamic to changes,"},{"Start":"05:23.135 ","End":"05:24.455","Text":"and it equals work."},{"Start":"05:24.455 ","End":"05:27.980","Text":"So this is bringing the concepts together."},{"Start":"05:27.980 ","End":"05:35.570","Text":"The units of Delta G^0 and Delta G are joules per mole or calories per mole."},{"Start":"05:35.570 ","End":"05:40.080","Text":"Joules is written as j."},{"Start":"05:40.080 ","End":"05:45.680","Text":"Delta G^0 and Delta G are measured in the units of joules per mole."},{"Start":"05:45.680 ","End":"05:48.810","Text":"You\u0027ll see this and mole."},{"Start":"05:48.810 ","End":"05:52.100","Text":"Now, I\u0027m not really getting into the math."},{"Start":"05:52.100 ","End":"05:56.015","Text":"I will just mention some basic rules to help understand the above equation."},{"Start":"05:56.015 ","End":"05:59.345","Text":"The natural logarithm log,"},{"Start":"05:59.345 ","End":"06:03.950","Text":"which you see written of any number less than 1,"},{"Start":"06:03.950 ","End":"06:06.995","Text":"is a negative number."},{"Start":"06:06.995 ","End":"06:11.615","Text":"The natural logarithm of any number greater than 1 is a positive number,"},{"Start":"06:11.615 ","End":"06:14.835","Text":"and log of 1 is 0."},{"Start":"06:14.835 ","End":"06:18.710","Text":"You have natural logarithm of any number less than 1 is negative."},{"Start":"06:18.710 ","End":"06:24.319","Text":"Natural logarithm of any number greater than 1 is a positive number."},{"Start":"06:24.319 ","End":"06:30.155","Text":"Thus looking at the formula without memorizing what I\u0027m about to say,"},{"Start":"06:30.155 ","End":"06:32.630","Text":"you can see that when K equilibrium,"},{"Start":"06:32.630 ","End":"06:35.080","Text":"the equilibrium constant is greater than 1,"},{"Start":"06:35.080 ","End":"06:37.035","Text":"much greater than 1."},{"Start":"06:37.035 ","End":"06:41.440","Text":"Delta G^0 is large and negative."},{"Start":"06:41.500 ","End":"06:46.085","Text":"When K equilibrium is smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"06:46.085 ","End":"06:50.460","Text":"Delta G^0 is large and positive."},{"Start":"06:50.800 ","End":"06:57.740","Text":"You have natural log of any number less than 1 is negative."},{"Start":"06:57.740 ","End":"07:00.245","Text":"Now, if you remember the formula,"},{"Start":"07:00.245 ","End":"07:05.255","Text":"and I highly recommend you actually practice"},{"Start":"07:05.255 ","End":"07:10.745","Text":"writing the formula out because that helps engrain it into your brain."},{"Start":"07:10.745 ","End":"07:13.600","Text":"In this formula, remember, this is negative."},{"Start":"07:13.600 ","End":"07:18.850","Text":"If we have an equilibrium constant that\u0027s smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"07:18.850 ","End":"07:21.745","Text":"the natural log is going to be a negative number."},{"Start":"07:21.745 ","End":"07:25.000","Text":"If you have this and it\u0027s a negative number,"},{"Start":"07:25.000 ","End":"07:29.755","Text":"negative times negative becomes positive."},{"Start":"07:29.755 ","End":"07:33.160","Text":"Therefore, Delta G is positive."},{"Start":"07:33.160 ","End":"07:36.160","Text":"When you have this that it is a lot smaller."},{"Start":"07:36.160 ","End":"07:39.360","Text":"It\u0027s not just a little bit smaller than"},{"Start":"07:39.360 ","End":"07:43.795","Text":"1 because it\u0027s a lot smaller it is large and positive."},{"Start":"07:43.795 ","End":"07:45.265","Text":"On the other hand,"},{"Start":"07:45.265 ","End":"07:53.930","Text":"because when the natural logarithm of any number bigger than 1 is positive number,"},{"Start":"07:53.930 ","End":"07:57.305","Text":"then you have now a positive number for this,"},{"Start":"07:57.305 ","End":"08:02.305","Text":"then positive times negative is negative."},{"Start":"08:02.305 ","End":"08:09.250","Text":"Then you will have a Delta G^0 that is negative."},{"Start":"08:09.250 ","End":"08:13.670","Text":"Looking at a table of experimentally determined values of either K equilibrium"},{"Start":"08:13.670 ","End":"08:17.690","Text":"constant of equilibrium or Delta G^0,"},{"Start":"08:17.690 ","End":"08:21.425","Text":"we can see which reactions tend to go to completion and which do not."},{"Start":"08:21.425 ","End":"08:25.040","Text":"These have been experimentally determined and"},{"Start":"08:25.040 ","End":"08:28.880","Text":"calculated and a table is formed and these are used for the calculations."},{"Start":"08:28.880 ","End":"08:33.560","Text":"We can see at a glance which reactions tend to go to completion and which are not."},{"Start":"08:33.560 ","End":"08:36.080","Text":"Thermodynamic constants such as Delta G^0,"},{"Start":"08:36.080 ","End":"08:38.915","Text":"show where the final equilibrium for a reaction lies,"},{"Start":"08:38.915 ","End":"08:42.935","Text":"but they do not provide information about the rate at which the reaction occurs."},{"Start":"08:42.935 ","End":"08:45.140","Text":"This is governed by kinetics,"},{"Start":"08:45.140 ","End":"08:47.030","Text":"which we\u0027ll cover in a later chapter."},{"Start":"08:47.030 ","End":"08:51.307","Text":"Again, the thermodynamic constants with Delta G^0 being 1 of them,"},{"Start":"08:51.307 ","End":"08:55.160","Text":"the Gibbs free energy change is 1 of them."},{"Start":"08:55.160 ","End":"08:58.295","Text":"It shows where the final equilibrium for a reaction lies."},{"Start":"08:58.295 ","End":"09:03.395","Text":"Yet they do not give us what the rate of the reactions are."},{"Start":"09:03.395 ","End":"09:09.050","Text":"Now, that we\u0027ve completed Part II of the equilibrium constant and physical foundation,"},{"Start":"09:09.050 ","End":"09:12.290","Text":"you should understand the equilibrium constant and"},{"Start":"09:12.290 ","End":"09:15.500","Text":"know and understand the formula for calculating Delta G of reaction and"},{"Start":"09:15.500 ","End":"09:18.645","Text":"the equilibrium and in total and upon completion"},{"Start":"09:18.645 ","End":"09:22.550","Text":"of this section on the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"09:22.550 ","End":"09:24.710","Text":"you should be able to define the equilibrium constant and"},{"Start":"09:24.710 ","End":"09:27.410","Text":"its significance with regard to spontaneous reactions."},{"Start":"09:27.410 ","End":"09:31.460","Text":"Understand the relationship between the equilibrium constant and Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"09:31.460 ","End":"09:34.880","Text":"and know the formulas for calculating the equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"09:34.880 ","End":"09:37.950","Text":"We will meet at the exercises."}],"ID":27050},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 18","Duration":"5m 17s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26163,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.110 ","End":"00:03.825","Text":"Hi, we are going to now test our knowledge on"},{"Start":"00:03.825 ","End":"00:07.815","Text":"the section of the equilibrium constant within physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.815 ","End":"00:12.990","Text":"Please explain the formula for the equilibrium constant, this,"},{"Start":"00:12.990 ","End":"00:19.035","Text":"and how does this translate to equilibrium in relation to 1?"},{"Start":"00:19.035 ","End":"00:26.730","Text":"This is the equilibrium constant and for the reaction in which A reacts with B to"},{"Start":"00:26.730 ","End":"00:34.094","Text":"give C and D. So A and B are our reactants and C and D are the products,"},{"Start":"00:34.094 ","End":"00:39.830","Text":"again, for the reaction in which A reacts with B to give C"},{"Start":"00:39.830 ","End":"00:46.030","Text":"and D when the products concentration is bigger than the reactants concentration."},{"Start":"00:46.030 ","End":"00:50.080","Text":"When this is bigger than this,"},{"Start":"00:50.770 ","End":"00:56.630","Text":"then K equilibrium is bigger than 1."},{"Start":"00:56.630 ","End":"01:00.440","Text":"Because it means the reaction is favored from the left to"},{"Start":"01:00.440 ","End":"01:04.700","Text":"the right to forming the products."},{"Start":"01:04.700 ","End":"01:09.825","Text":"Again, for the reaction in which A reacts with B to give C and D,"},{"Start":"01:09.825 ","End":"01:13.430","Text":"when the product concentration is bigger than the reactants concentration."},{"Start":"01:13.430 ","End":"01:16.070","Text":"When C and D concentrations are bigger than A and B,"},{"Start":"01:16.070 ","End":"01:18.470","Text":"then K equilibrium is bigger than 1."},{"Start":"01:18.470 ","End":"01:20.210","Text":"When K equilibrium is bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"01:20.210 ","End":"01:26.090","Text":"the reaction proceeds spontaneously to form C and D. You will actually see A and"},{"Start":"01:26.090 ","End":"01:32.180","Text":"B reacting to form C and D. Now the larger the K equilibrium,"},{"Start":"01:32.180 ","End":"01:33.830","Text":"the greater the tendency of the reactants"},{"Start":"01:33.830 ","End":"01:35.915","Text":"in the reaction to be converted into the products."},{"Start":"01:35.915 ","End":"01:39.635","Text":"So there\u0027s a larger tendency for A and B"},{"Start":"01:39.635 ","End":"01:44.120","Text":"to be converted to C and D. You could literally say it\u0027s"},{"Start":"01:44.120 ","End":"01:49.850","Text":"a big fat arrow and C and D."},{"Start":"01:49.850 ","End":"01:56.140","Text":"This is greatly favored when the equilibrium constant is larger."},{"Start":"01:56.140 ","End":"01:59.900","Text":"When the reactants concentration is bigger than the products concentration,"},{"Start":"01:59.900 ","End":"02:02.090","Text":"meaning A and B,"},{"Start":"02:02.090 ","End":"02:05.390","Text":"is bigger than C and D,"},{"Start":"02:05.390 ","End":"02:10.575","Text":"then the equilibrium constant is smaller than 1."},{"Start":"02:10.575 ","End":"02:14.630","Text":"Let\u0027s look at that. When the equilibrium constant is smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"02:14.630 ","End":"02:17.705","Text":"the reaction favors the formation of A and B."},{"Start":"02:17.705 ","End":"02:24.800","Text":"What we would have here is actually the reaction going from right to left."},{"Start":"02:24.800 ","End":"02:28.315","Text":"If the equilibrium constant is 1 or nearly 1,"},{"Start":"02:28.315 ","End":"02:29.930","Text":"it indicates that the concentrations of"},{"Start":"02:29.930 ","End":"02:32.120","Text":"the reactants and the products are about the same."},{"Start":"02:32.120 ","End":"02:34.880","Text":"You see A and B,"},{"Start":"02:34.880 ","End":"02:38.739","Text":"the concentrations, square brackets,"},{"Start":"02:38.739 ","End":"02:44.520","Text":"equal or nearly equal the concentrations of C and D. Again,"},{"Start":"02:44.520 ","End":"02:49.025","Text":"just talking about this in other terms algebraically."},{"Start":"02:49.025 ","End":"02:51.260","Text":"When K equilibrium is bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"02:51.260 ","End":"02:56.945","Text":"it means that the numerator is larger than the denominator."},{"Start":"02:56.945 ","End":"02:59.704","Text":"The top part is larger than the bottom part."},{"Start":"02:59.704 ","End":"03:05.630","Text":"So you have products being formed from the reactants."},{"Start":"03:05.630 ","End":"03:10.190","Text":"You have the movement from left to right,"},{"Start":"03:10.190 ","End":"03:19.470","Text":"from A plus B towards C plus D. Now,"},{"Start":"03:19.470 ","End":"03:22.700","Text":"on the other hand, when the reactants concentration is"},{"Start":"03:22.700 ","End":"03:26.105","Text":"bigger than the products concentration,"},{"Start":"03:26.105 ","End":"03:33.455","Text":"this means A and B are bigger than C and D. It means that the numerator,"},{"Start":"03:33.455 ","End":"03:37.100","Text":"this is smaller than the denominator."},{"Start":"03:37.100 ","End":"03:39.980","Text":"Let\u0027s think of this. If we have these numbers,"},{"Start":"03:39.980 ","End":"03:44.140","Text":"we\u0027re going to say, we\u0027ll just use the numbers 1 and 2."},{"Start":"03:44.140 ","End":"03:47.030","Text":"When K equilibrium is bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"03:47.030 ","End":"03:50.300","Text":"the reaction proceeds spontaneously to form C and D,"},{"Start":"03:50.300 ","End":"03:55.220","Text":"and it\u0027s because we have the products concentration being bigger than the reactants."},{"Start":"03:55.220 ","End":"04:01.140","Text":"We will say the products C and D are 2,"},{"Start":"04:01.140 ","End":"04:02.925","Text":"and A and B,"},{"Start":"04:02.925 ","End":"04:06.870","Text":"the concentration is 1, this equals 2."},{"Start":"04:06.870 ","End":"04:09.540","Text":"This is a number that\u0027s bigger than"},{"Start":"04:09.540 ","End":"04:12.590","Text":"1 and it means that the reaction goes from left to right."},{"Start":"04:12.590 ","End":"04:20.640","Text":"On the other hand, this is for C and D,"},{"Start":"04:20.640 ","End":"04:22.220","Text":"and this is for A and B."},{"Start":"04:22.220 ","End":"04:25.490","Text":"If we say that the reactants are bigger than product we"},{"Start":"04:25.490 ","End":"04:28.590","Text":"actually then want to say for A and B,"},{"Start":"04:28.590 ","End":"04:30.000","Text":"we put the number 2,"},{"Start":"04:30.000 ","End":"04:32.445","Text":"and for C and D we put the number 1."},{"Start":"04:32.445 ","End":"04:36.690","Text":"This fraction means 1/2."},{"Start":"04:36.690 ","End":"04:39.125","Text":"So in that case,"},{"Start":"04:39.125 ","End":"04:42.390","Text":"K equilibrium is smaller than 1."},{"Start":"04:42.390 ","End":"04:46.490","Text":"Hopefully, that explains it better."},{"Start":"04:46.490 ","End":"04:48.860","Text":"Just to remind you,"},{"Start":"04:48.860 ","End":"04:52.490","Text":"one thing that I mentioned during the lecture if the equilibrium constant is nearly 1,"},{"Start":"04:52.490 ","End":"04:56.525","Text":"in the case of the concentrations and more specifically molarities."},{"Start":"04:56.525 ","End":"05:01.670","Text":"How many moles are the molarities of these reactants and products?"},{"Start":"05:01.670 ","End":"05:03.560","Text":"We haven\u0027t covered that term yet,"},{"Start":"05:03.560 ","End":"05:06.095","Text":"but I just want to plant it into your head."},{"Start":"05:06.095 ","End":"05:10.070","Text":"It says the concentrations of the reactants and products are about the same."},{"Start":"05:10.070 ","End":"05:15.260","Text":"With this, we covered our first exercise of the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"05:15.260 ","End":"05:17.850","Text":"and I\u0027ll see you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27051},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 19","Duration":"50s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26164,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.020 ","End":"00:03.105","Text":"Hi there and we\u0027re back with an exercise covering"},{"Start":"00:03.105 ","End":"00:05.640","Text":"equilibrium constant within Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:05.640 ","End":"00:07.114","Text":"Complete the sentence,"},{"Start":"00:07.114 ","End":"00:10.920","Text":"the magnitude of the standard Gibbs free energy Delta G naught is a measure of"},{"Start":"00:10.920 ","End":"00:15.900","Text":"how something the standard state is from something."},{"Start":"00:15.900 ","End":"00:19.470","Text":"We talked about the magnitude of standard Gibbs free energy with regard to"},{"Start":"00:19.470 ","End":"00:23.795","Text":"reactions and in regard to reaction,"},{"Start":"00:23.795 ","End":"00:26.315","Text":"how they\u0027re going to proceed."},{"Start":"00:26.315 ","End":"00:30.320","Text":"What we actually stated was that the magnitude of"},{"Start":"00:30.320 ","End":"00:33.410","Text":"a standard Gibbs free energy Delta G naught is a measure of how"},{"Start":"00:33.410 ","End":"00:38.360","Text":"far the standard state is from equilibrium."},{"Start":"00:38.360 ","End":"00:42.140","Text":"The magnitude of the standard Gibbs free energy Delta G naught"},{"Start":"00:42.140 ","End":"00:45.140","Text":"is a measure of how far the standard state is from equilibrium,"},{"Start":"00:45.140 ","End":"00:49.085","Text":"the bigger it is, the more of a chance that will go to equilibrium."},{"Start":"00:49.085 ","End":"00:51.540","Text":"From here we\u0027ll move on."}],"ID":27052},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 20","Duration":"5m 33s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26165,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.260 ","End":"00:03.870","Text":"We\u0027re moving into another exercise within the equilibrium"},{"Start":"00:03.870 ","End":"00:08.939","Text":"constant of the section in physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:08.939 ","End":"00:12.060","Text":"The formula for the standard Gibbs free energy shows"},{"Start":"00:12.060 ","End":"00:15.270","Text":"its directly link to a reaction\u0027s equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"00:15.270 ","End":"00:17.025","Text":"Here you see the formula."},{"Start":"00:17.025 ","End":"00:20.040","Text":"This is the equilibrium constant and"},{"Start":"00:20.040 ","End":"00:23.220","Text":"the standard Gibbs free energy change is delta G^naught."},{"Start":"00:23.220 ","End":"00:25.790","Text":"The equilibrium constant is thus a measure of"},{"Start":"00:25.790 ","End":"00:30.290","Text":"the directionality of the reaction under standard conditions."},{"Start":"00:30.290 ","End":"00:38.475","Text":"Thus delta G^naught is another way of expressing the driving force of a reaction."},{"Start":"00:38.475 ","End":"00:40.850","Text":"Again, the equilibrium constant is a measure of"},{"Start":"00:40.850 ","End":"00:43.220","Text":"the directionality of the reaction under standard conditions,"},{"Start":"00:43.220 ","End":"00:46.100","Text":"meaning that tendency of a chemical reaction to go to"},{"Start":"00:46.100 ","End":"00:50.480","Text":"completion and delta G^naught is another way besides the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"00:50.480 ","End":"00:55.400","Text":"besides K_eq of expressing the driving force on a reaction."},{"Start":"00:55.400 ","End":"00:59.240","Text":"Considering this, which statement is correct?"},{"Start":"00:59.240 ","End":"01:03.585","Text":"When the equilibrium constant is greater than 1,"},{"Start":"01:03.585 ","End":"01:06.325","Text":"delta G^naught is large and negative."},{"Start":"01:06.325 ","End":"01:09.830","Text":"When the equilibrium constant is smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"01:09.830 ","End":"01:13.070","Text":"delta G is small and negative."},{"Start":"01:13.070 ","End":"01:16.550","Text":"When the equilibrium constant is larger than 1,"},{"Start":"01:16.550 ","End":"01:18.920","Text":"delta G is large and positive."},{"Start":"01:18.920 ","End":"01:22.205","Text":"When the equilibrium constant is smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"01:22.205 ","End":"01:24.830","Text":"the delta G^naught is small and positive."},{"Start":"01:24.830 ","End":"01:28.340","Text":"Or e, none of these are correct."},{"Start":"01:28.340 ","End":"01:31.850","Text":"In the formula, we have a natural log, and we said that,"},{"Start":"01:31.850 ","End":"01:36.605","Text":"a natural log of a number that is smaller"},{"Start":"01:36.605 ","End":"01:42.785","Text":"than 1 will result in a negative value."},{"Start":"01:42.785 ","End":"01:48.710","Text":"When you have a natural log of something that is greater than 1,"},{"Start":"01:48.710 ","End":"01:52.100","Text":"it will be a positive value."},{"Start":"01:52.100 ","End":"01:57.725","Text":"If you have a negative value here, times a negative,"},{"Start":"01:57.725 ","End":"02:02.345","Text":"you are going to get a positive delta G."},{"Start":"02:02.345 ","End":"02:08.510","Text":"This means that delta G will be positive."},{"Start":"02:08.510 ","End":"02:12.890","Text":"On the other hand, if we have natural log of a number that\u0027s bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"02:12.890 ","End":"02:18.665","Text":"we will have a positive and the delta G^naught will be negative."},{"Start":"02:18.665 ","End":"02:23.790","Text":"Let\u0027s look here. When the equilibrium constant is bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"02:24.640 ","End":"02:29.165","Text":"delta G^naught is large and negative."},{"Start":"02:29.165 ","End":"02:31.490","Text":"That makes sense based on this."},{"Start":"02:31.490 ","End":"02:32.990","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to the next one."},{"Start":"02:32.990 ","End":"02:36.785","Text":"When the equilibrium constant is smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"02:36.785 ","End":"02:40.504","Text":"delta G is small and negative."},{"Start":"02:40.504 ","End":"02:43.095","Text":"Well, if it\u0027s smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"02:43.095 ","End":"02:45.315","Text":"delta G should actually be positive,"},{"Start":"02:45.315 ","End":"02:47.100","Text":"this doesn\u0027t make sense."},{"Start":"02:47.100 ","End":"02:49.035","Text":"Now, is it\u0027s small,"},{"Start":"02:49.035 ","End":"02:54.320","Text":"we actually said when we marked this versus this."},{"Start":"02:54.320 ","End":"03:00.765","Text":"We said that it means it will be a large value versus this form."},{"Start":"03:00.765 ","End":"03:04.730","Text":"B seems like it\u0027s incorrect on"},{"Start":"03:04.730 ","End":"03:08.570","Text":"both measures that it wouldn\u0027t be small because you are saying that,"},{"Start":"03:08.570 ","End":"03:12.425","Text":"K_equilibrium is much smaller than 1."},{"Start":"03:12.425 ","End":"03:15.200","Text":"D is incorrect."},{"Start":"03:15.200 ","End":"03:19.060","Text":"Let\u0027s go on to c. When K equilibrium is bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"03:19.060 ","End":"03:22.295","Text":"like here, delta G is large,"},{"Start":"03:22.295 ","End":"03:24.425","Text":"we agree with that, and positive."},{"Start":"03:24.425 ","End":"03:27.860","Text":"Once again, you have K_equilibrium bigger than 1,"},{"Start":"03:27.860 ","End":"03:33.470","Text":"then you will have a positive value when you take the natural log of it,"},{"Start":"03:33.470 ","End":"03:38.600","Text":"which means delta G will remain negative because positive times negative is negative,"},{"Start":"03:38.600 ","End":"03:41.665","Text":"therefore, this is incorrect."},{"Start":"03:41.665 ","End":"03:46.845","Text":"We move on to d, when K_equilibrium is much smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"03:46.845 ","End":"03:49.235","Text":"delta G is small and positive."},{"Start":"03:49.235 ","End":"03:54.140","Text":"Again, when we said, when this is smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"03:54.140 ","End":"03:57.170","Text":"then the natural log of a number that\u0027s smaller than 1 is"},{"Start":"03:57.170 ","End":"04:03.035","Text":"a negative value and a negative number times a negative number gives us a positive."},{"Start":"04:03.035 ","End":"04:05.550","Text":"Therefore, delta G^naught will be positive."},{"Start":"04:05.550 ","End":"04:07.070","Text":"This is correct."},{"Start":"04:07.070 ","End":"04:10.430","Text":"But again, we have the double arrow,"},{"Start":"04:10.430 ","End":"04:12.260","Text":"meaning that it\u0027s much smaller than 1,"},{"Start":"04:12.260 ","End":"04:14.840","Text":"therefore, it\u0027s going to be a large number,"},{"Start":"04:14.840 ","End":"04:18.650","Text":"not a small number, therefore, d is incorrect."},{"Start":"04:18.650 ","End":"04:20.915","Text":"Now, d would be correct,"},{"Start":"04:20.915 ","End":"04:28.759","Text":"if it\u0027s stated that when K_equilibrium is much smaller than 1 it is large and positive,"},{"Start":"04:28.759 ","End":"04:32.990","Text":"which actually is what we have defined an a, therefore,"},{"Start":"04:32.990 ","End":"04:36.170","Text":"we can say the e also is incorrect because"},{"Start":"04:36.170 ","End":"04:39.515","Text":"it states that none of these are correct yet we know that a is correct,"},{"Start":"04:39.515 ","End":"04:41.180","Text":"and this is our answer."},{"Start":"04:41.180 ","End":"04:44.670","Text":"Considering this, you repeat it,"},{"Start":"04:44.670 ","End":"04:48.470","Text":"delta G^naught equals negative the gas constant times"},{"Start":"04:48.470 ","End":"04:52.990","Text":"absolute temperature times the natural log of the equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"04:52.990 ","End":"04:55.640","Text":"The formula for the standard Gibbs free energy, this formula,"},{"Start":"04:55.640 ","End":"04:59.030","Text":"shows its direct link to reaction\u0027s equilibrium constant."},{"Start":"04:59.030 ","End":"05:01.640","Text":"The equilibrium constant is thus a measure to the directionality"},{"Start":"05:01.640 ","End":"05:04.100","Text":"of the reaction under standard conditions,"},{"Start":"05:04.100 ","End":"05:07.295","Text":"meaning its tendency to go to completion."},{"Start":"05:07.295 ","End":"05:10.115","Text":"Thus, delta G^naught is another way of expressing,"},{"Start":"05:10.115 ","End":"05:12.140","Text":"aside from the equilibrium constant,"},{"Start":"05:12.140 ","End":"05:13.835","Text":"the driving force on a reaction,"},{"Start":"05:13.835 ","End":"05:15.880","Text":"and considering this,"},{"Start":"05:15.880 ","End":"05:17.960","Text":"a is the correct statement that,"},{"Start":"05:17.960 ","End":"05:20.210","Text":"when K_equilibrium is much greater than 1,"},{"Start":"05:20.210 ","End":"05:22.880","Text":"delta G^naught is large and negative."},{"Start":"05:22.880 ","End":"05:28.310","Text":"D would be correct if it is stated that delta G is large and positive,"},{"Start":"05:28.310 ","End":"05:31.010","Text":"which is actually what we have here."},{"Start":"05:31.010 ","End":"05:34.200","Text":"Thanks and we\u0027ll see you in the next section."}],"ID":27053},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Chemical Reactions, activation energy and Enzymes part 1","Duration":"8m 21s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26166,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:01.020","Text":"Hi there. We\u0027re covering"},{"Start":"00:01.020 ","End":"00:04.530","Text":"Physical Foundation and we will specifically talk about Chemical Reactions,"},{"Start":"00:04.530 ","End":"00:06.360","Text":"Activation Energy and Enzymes."},{"Start":"00:06.360 ","End":"00:08.660","Text":"By the end of this section you should be able to understand and"},{"Start":"00:08.660 ","End":"00:11.490","Text":"explain the significance of enzymes to cellular activity,"},{"Start":"00:11.490 ","End":"00:13.770","Text":"explain activation energy, and discuss how"},{"Start":"00:13.770 ","End":"00:16.155","Text":"chemical reactants play a role in energy transfer."},{"Start":"00:16.155 ","End":"00:19.005","Text":"We\u0027re going to split this section into 2."},{"Start":"00:19.005 ","End":"00:20.415","Text":"In Part 1,"},{"Start":"00:20.415 ","End":"00:25.610","Text":"we will cover specifically the significance of enzymes as bio-catalysts of reactions,"},{"Start":"00:25.610 ","End":"00:28.220","Text":"comprehend the energy barrier and activation energy of"},{"Start":"00:28.220 ","End":"00:31.025","Text":"reactions and define the transition state of a reaction."},{"Start":"00:31.025 ","End":"00:34.430","Text":"All biological macro-molecules are kinetically stable,"},{"Start":"00:34.430 ","End":"00:39.740","Text":"though they are much less thermodynamically stable than their monomer sub-units."},{"Start":"00:39.740 ","End":"00:45.365","Text":"Kinetics means relating of motion,"},{"Start":"00:45.365 ","End":"00:48.650","Text":"or basically relating to the motion of"},{"Start":"00:48.650 ","End":"00:53.105","Text":"material bodies and the forces and energy associated there with."},{"Start":"00:53.105 ","End":"00:55.400","Text":"It\u0027s like the active,"},{"Start":"00:55.400 ","End":"01:02.840","Text":"lively dynamic aspect of these molecules or material bodies and it\u0027s energizing."},{"Start":"01:02.840 ","End":"01:06.795","Text":"It\u0027s like a kinetic performers and active performers."},{"Start":"01:06.795 ","End":"01:10.961","Text":"All biological macromolecules are kinetically stable."},{"Start":"01:10.961 ","End":"01:14.810","Text":"Within their movement and what not, there\u0027s a stability."},{"Start":"01:14.810 ","End":"01:21.305","Text":"While they\u0027re much less thermodynamically stable because there is that change of energy,"},{"Start":"01:21.305 ","End":"01:23.240","Text":"that breaking down,"},{"Start":"01:23.240 ","End":"01:26.735","Text":"bringing that together, heat released, energy released."},{"Start":"01:26.735 ","End":"01:32.600","Text":"This means that their uncatalyzed breakdown occurs so"},{"Start":"01:32.600 ","End":"01:38.225","Text":"slowly over years rather than seconds that in context of the organisms timescale,"},{"Start":"01:38.225 ","End":"01:40.085","Text":"these molecules are stable."},{"Start":"01:40.085 ","End":"01:43.910","Text":"What this means is biological macro-molecules are kinetically"},{"Start":"01:43.910 ","End":"01:47.785","Text":"stable is that their breakdown,"},{"Start":"01:47.785 ","End":"01:51.440","Text":"their natural breakdown, not catalyzed by"},{"Start":"01:51.440 ","End":"01:55.340","Text":"some other protein or enzyme, occurs very slowly."},{"Start":"01:55.340 ","End":"01:57.875","Text":"Naturally would occur over years."},{"Start":"01:57.875 ","End":"02:01.415","Text":"Therefore in an organism\u0027s timescale,"},{"Start":"02:01.415 ","End":"02:03.110","Text":"these molecules are stable."},{"Start":"02:03.110 ","End":"02:06.410","Text":"Almost every chemical reaction in a cell is able to"},{"Start":"02:06.410 ","End":"02:10.610","Text":"occur at a significant rate due to the presence of enzymes."},{"Start":"02:10.610 ","End":"02:13.100","Text":"A reminder, enzymes are"},{"Start":"02:13.100 ","End":"02:17.269","Text":"an active form of a protein and these are just figures to illustrate."},{"Start":"02:17.269 ","End":"02:19.805","Text":"They don\u0027t actually look like this nor have eyes."},{"Start":"02:19.805 ","End":"02:24.465","Text":"This is to explain how macro-molecules"},{"Start":"02:24.465 ","End":"02:29.390","Text":"do have changes and not over years rather within seconds,"},{"Start":"02:29.390 ","End":"02:33.110","Text":"they are aided by the enzymes to"},{"Start":"02:33.110 ","End":"02:37.940","Text":"have these chemical reactions occur at a significant rate."},{"Start":"02:37.940 ","End":"02:41.240","Text":"These act as bio-catalysts."},{"Start":"02:41.240 ","End":"02:46.235","Text":"They catalyze reactions and they\u0027re of biological nature, enzymes."},{"Start":"02:46.235 ","End":"02:49.850","Text":"These act as bio-catalysts that considerably enhance the rate of"},{"Start":"02:49.850 ","End":"02:53.510","Text":"chemical reactions without being consumed in the process."},{"Start":"02:53.510 ","End":"02:56.269","Text":"Meaning that while they catalyze a reaction,"},{"Start":"02:56.269 ","End":"02:59.090","Text":"they\u0027re not used up, they\u0027re recyclable."},{"Start":"02:59.090 ","End":"03:03.365","Text":"They can catalyze a reaction and go back and do it again."},{"Start":"03:03.365 ","End":"03:07.250","Text":"If you have, as we covered in previous sections, enzymes,"},{"Start":"03:07.250 ","End":"03:11.910","Text":"they have a specific target, a specific substrate."},{"Start":"03:11.910 ","End":"03:14.605","Text":"For example, we used enzyme A and enzyme B."},{"Start":"03:14.605 ","End":"03:15.995","Text":"It can go both directions."},{"Start":"03:15.995 ","End":"03:19.415","Text":"Monomers to polymers, polymers to monomers."},{"Start":"03:19.415 ","End":"03:21.170","Text":"Enzyme A, for example,"},{"Start":"03:21.170 ","End":"03:22.486","Text":"will take monomers in,"},{"Start":"03:22.486 ","End":"03:24.590","Text":"bring them together into polymers."},{"Start":"03:24.590 ","End":"03:29.450","Text":"Enzyme B will break down polymers and into the monomers."},{"Start":"03:29.450 ","End":"03:32.345","Text":"If you\u0027re looking at a reaction,"},{"Start":"03:32.345 ","End":"03:35.255","Text":"we had said that there is"},{"Start":"03:35.255 ","End":"03:42.140","Text":"this natural time that it takes for a reaction to occur naturally."},{"Start":"03:42.140 ","End":"03:47.375","Text":"Therefore, these enzymes can help it happen quicker."},{"Start":"03:47.375 ","End":"03:49.730","Text":"If you have no catalyst,"},{"Start":"03:49.730 ","End":"03:53.030","Text":"you see there\u0027s a lot more energy that needs to"},{"Start":"03:53.030 ","End":"03:56.765","Text":"be invested in order for a reaction to occur."},{"Start":"03:56.765 ","End":"04:00.785","Text":"Not likely to happen spontaneously and you have these reactants,"},{"Start":"04:00.785 ","End":"04:01.910","Text":"but with a catalyst,"},{"Start":"04:01.910 ","End":"04:04.430","Text":"if you see the potential energy that"},{"Start":"04:04.430 ","End":"04:07.400","Text":"needs to be invested in order for the reaction to occur,"},{"Start":"04:07.400 ","End":"04:11.510","Text":"is much smaller than with no catalyst and you can have the products,"},{"Start":"04:11.510 ","End":"04:12.890","Text":"whereas here you don\u0027t."},{"Start":"04:12.890 ","End":"04:15.035","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about activation energy."},{"Start":"04:15.035 ","End":"04:18.200","Text":"Chemical reactions always involve an energy barrier called"},{"Start":"04:18.200 ","End":"04:22.525","Text":"the activation barrier that must be overcome for any reaction to proceed."},{"Start":"04:22.525 ","End":"04:24.515","Text":"If we look at these illustrations again,"},{"Start":"04:24.515 ","End":"04:29.075","Text":"this represents that activation barrier,"},{"Start":"04:29.075 ","End":"04:33.815","Text":"that energy barrier for the reaction to occur up here."},{"Start":"04:33.815 ","End":"04:39.425","Text":"It\u0027s high and a catalyst can reduce it to go here so the reaction will occur."},{"Start":"04:39.425 ","End":"04:41.705","Text":"When you look in here, free energy,"},{"Start":"04:41.705 ","End":"04:43.175","Text":"progress of reaction,"},{"Start":"04:43.175 ","End":"04:48.410","Text":"this is here, this activation energy, this activation barrier."},{"Start":"04:48.410 ","End":"04:54.200","Text":"You see it spelled as E with a subscript of A,"},{"Start":"04:54.200 ","End":"04:56.450","Text":"the breaking of bonds and formation of new ones requires"},{"Start":"04:56.450 ","End":"05:00.745","Text":"a transition state which has an extremely short lifetime."},{"Start":"05:00.745 ","End":"05:03.235","Text":"It\u0027s measured in femtoseconds."},{"Start":"05:03.235 ","End":"05:07.625","Text":"Femto is many magnitudes smaller than a second."},{"Start":"05:07.625 ","End":"05:10.160","Text":"Here you see this transition state."},{"Start":"05:10.160 ","End":"05:12.500","Text":"It is very short-lived."},{"Start":"05:12.500 ","End":"05:15.920","Text":"It\u0027s femtoseconds and cannot be isolated."},{"Start":"05:15.920 ","End":"05:19.790","Text":"It is a temporary state of molecular structure in which the molecule is"},{"Start":"05:19.790 ","End":"05:23.645","Text":"no longer a substrate but not yet a product."},{"Start":"05:23.645 ","End":"05:27.950","Text":"What you see here by this illustration is the reactants here,"},{"Start":"05:27.950 ","End":"05:29.195","Text":"A and B is bound to C,"},{"Start":"05:29.195 ","End":"05:31.040","Text":"and star A is bound to B,"},{"Start":"05:31.040 ","End":"05:33.455","Text":"C is bound to D. Here,"},{"Start":"05:33.455 ","End":"05:34.840","Text":"you see the same bond."},{"Start":"05:34.840 ","End":"05:36.970","Text":"You see the same mark as bound,"},{"Start":"05:36.970 ","End":"05:42.830","Text":"but there\u0027s the squiggly line to represent that it is a transitional state."},{"Start":"05:42.830 ","End":"05:45.215","Text":"Then in the products now you see there\u0027s a difference,"},{"Start":"05:45.215 ","End":"05:48.590","Text":"is bound to C and B is bound to D. Here they represent it"},{"Start":"05:48.590 ","End":"05:52.370","Text":"with this square between the reactants."},{"Start":"05:52.370 ","End":"05:53.960","Text":"It\u0027s not the products yet,"},{"Start":"05:53.960 ","End":"05:55.490","Text":"but it\u0027s a square,"},{"Start":"05:55.490 ","End":"05:57.440","Text":"it\u0027s a transitional state."},{"Start":"05:57.440 ","End":"05:59.180","Text":"It is the state corresponding to"},{"Start":"05:59.180 ","End":"06:02.810","Text":"the highest energy along the reaction coordinate transition state."},{"Start":"06:02.810 ","End":"06:05.089","Text":"You see here, it\u0027s the highest energy."},{"Start":"06:05.089 ","End":"06:07.805","Text":"If we have the y-axis as free energy,"},{"Start":"06:07.805 ","End":"06:09.734","Text":"the higher it is, that\u0027s the highest point."},{"Start":"06:09.734 ","End":"06:12.050","Text":"This is the highest point. Same here."},{"Start":"06:12.050 ","End":"06:16.099","Text":"Activated complex is for the energy barrier,"},{"Start":"06:16.099 ","End":"06:20.705","Text":"the activation barrier, and it\u0027s the transition state. It\u0027s up here."},{"Start":"06:20.705 ","End":"06:22.940","Text":"Again, it is the state corresponding to"},{"Start":"06:22.940 ","End":"06:25.359","Text":"the highest energy along the reaction coordinate."},{"Start":"06:25.359 ","End":"06:27.335","Text":"When looking at this reaction,"},{"Start":"06:27.335 ","End":"06:30.950","Text":"we have a reactant and these bonds are breaking"},{"Start":"06:30.950 ","End":"06:36.680","Text":"even something that would generally be considered to occur spontaneously."},{"Start":"06:36.680 ","End":"06:39.050","Text":"Remember we covered exogenic reactions."},{"Start":"06:39.050 ","End":"06:41.300","Text":"Something spontaneously would still involve"},{"Start":"06:41.300 ","End":"06:45.725","Text":"chemical bond breaking and have this energy barrier,"},{"Start":"06:45.725 ","End":"06:51.335","Text":"this high peak, which would be the transition state activation barrier."},{"Start":"06:51.335 ","End":"06:56.270","Text":"Now a small amount of energy input is needed before the energy-releasing steps."},{"Start":"06:56.270 ","End":"07:00.080","Text":"A transition state is a very short configuration of atoms at"},{"Start":"07:00.080 ","End":"07:05.285","Text":"a local energy maximum in a reaction energy diagram,"},{"Start":"07:05.285 ","End":"07:07.235","Text":"aka a reaction coordinate."},{"Start":"07:07.235 ","End":"07:11.285","Text":"If you\u0027re looking at this reaction energy diagram,"},{"Start":"07:11.285 ","End":"07:12.650","Text":"or a reaction coordinate,"},{"Start":"07:12.650 ","End":"07:14.450","Text":"you see this is the peak,"},{"Start":"07:14.450 ","End":"07:16.385","Text":"this is the transition state."},{"Start":"07:16.385 ","End":"07:20.195","Text":"Again, it\u0027s a very short-lived configuration of atoms."},{"Start":"07:20.195 ","End":"07:23.840","Text":"The difference of energy between the reactant and"},{"Start":"07:23.840 ","End":"07:28.595","Text":"its ground state and in its transition state is the activation energy,"},{"Start":"07:28.595 ","End":"07:32.315","Text":"Delta G or EA."},{"Start":"07:32.315 ","End":"07:36.830","Text":"This means it\u0027s the initial energy needed for the reaction to occur."},{"Start":"07:36.830 ","End":"07:39.770","Text":"Then the difference of energy between the reactants and it\u0027s ground statements."},{"Start":"07:39.770 ","End":"07:42.365","Text":"Transition state is the activation energy."},{"Start":"07:42.365 ","End":"07:48.005","Text":"It is the initial energy needed for the reaction to occur."},{"Start":"07:48.005 ","End":"07:55.175","Text":"This initial free energy that needs to be invested for this reaction to take place."},{"Start":"07:55.175 ","End":"08:00.049","Text":"The transition state of the reaction exists at a higher energy state than the reactants,"},{"Start":"08:00.049 ","End":"08:04.085","Text":"and thus, Delta G is always positive."},{"Start":"08:04.085 ","End":"08:06.830","Text":"With this we have completed Part 1 of chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"08:06.830 ","End":"08:08.630","Text":"activation energy, and enzymes,"},{"Start":"08:08.630 ","End":"08:10.325","Text":"and physical foundation,"},{"Start":"08:10.325 ","End":"08:12.410","Text":"and now you should be able to explain"},{"Start":"08:12.410 ","End":"08:15.500","Text":"the significance of enzymes and bio-catalysts reactions,"},{"Start":"08:15.500 ","End":"08:18.230","Text":"comprehend the energy barrier and activation energy of reactions,"},{"Start":"08:18.230 ","End":"08:22.380","Text":"and define the transition state of a reaction. Let\u0027s go into Part 2."}],"ID":27054},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Chemical Reactions, activation energy and Enzymes part 2","Duration":"13m 35s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26167,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.060","Text":"Hi, there. Welcome back to chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"00:03.060 ","End":"00:04.500","Text":"activation energy, and enzymes."},{"Start":"00:04.500 ","End":"00:09.630","Text":"We are within Part II where we will go over and explain how enzymes catalyze reactions,"},{"Start":"00:09.630 ","End":"00:13.450","Text":"understand the relationship between magnitude of activation energy and rate of reactant,"},{"Start":"00:13.450 ","End":"00:15.510","Text":"and grasp the connection of the specificity"},{"Start":"00:15.510 ","End":"00:18.130","Text":"of enzymes and its importance in cell regulation."},{"Start":"00:18.130 ","End":"00:20.790","Text":"Enzymes catalyze reactions by providing a surface that"},{"Start":"00:20.790 ","End":"00:23.850","Text":"compliments the transition state in stereochemistry,"},{"Start":"00:23.850 ","End":"00:25.005","Text":"polarity, and charge."},{"Start":"00:25.005 ","End":"00:27.490","Text":"If we think of the enzymes right in our illustrations,"},{"Start":"00:27.490 ","End":"00:28.590","Text":"so we have these shapes,"},{"Start":"00:28.590 ","End":"00:31.545","Text":"their mouth they can also be like a triangle."},{"Start":"00:31.545 ","End":"00:37.890","Text":"This is actually the surface allowing complementing"},{"Start":"00:37.890 ","End":"00:44.500","Text":"the shape or the transition state of the actual reactants."},{"Start":"00:44.500 ","End":"00:47.555","Text":"We also talked about previously stereochemistry,"},{"Start":"00:47.555 ","End":"00:50.045","Text":"polarity, and charge specific to stereochemistry."},{"Start":"00:50.045 ","End":"00:55.760","Text":"These are things that make these enzymes specific to certain substrate,"},{"Start":"00:55.760 ","End":"00:56.840","Text":"to a certain reactant,"},{"Start":"00:56.840 ","End":"00:59.795","Text":"and allows for a reaction to occur."},{"Start":"00:59.795 ","End":"01:01.190","Text":"You have the reactant,"},{"Start":"01:01.190 ","End":"01:02.555","Text":"here we have a circular."},{"Start":"01:02.555 ","End":"01:03.805","Text":"You have the enzyme."},{"Start":"01:03.805 ","End":"01:06.410","Text":"Enzyme binds to the reactant."},{"Start":"01:06.410 ","End":"01:08.285","Text":"You have activation energy."},{"Start":"01:08.285 ","End":"01:10.625","Text":"When you compare without the enzyme,"},{"Start":"01:10.625 ","End":"01:12.320","Text":"it is much smaller."},{"Start":"01:12.320 ","End":"01:16.100","Text":"The enzyme is able because of this complementation to the reactant,"},{"Start":"01:16.100 ","End":"01:19.260","Text":"to its substrate to lower the activation energy"},{"Start":"01:19.260 ","End":"01:23.345","Text":"needed in order for the reaction to occur."},{"Start":"01:23.345 ","End":"01:27.590","Text":"The binding of enzymes to the transition state molecules is exogenic."},{"Start":"01:27.590 ","End":"01:29.180","Text":"There is our term again,"},{"Start":"01:29.180 ","End":"01:30.500","Text":"meaning it releases energy."},{"Start":"01:30.500 ","End":"01:32.285","Text":"It can happen spontaneously."},{"Start":"01:32.285 ","End":"01:37.339","Text":"It can happen without necessarily an investment of energy."},{"Start":"01:37.339 ","End":"01:41.570","Text":"The energy released by this binding reduces the activation energy"},{"Start":"01:41.570 ","End":"01:43.130","Text":"for the reaction and thus increases"},{"Start":"01:43.130 ","End":"01:45.590","Text":"the reaction rate significantly. Let\u0027s think about it."},{"Start":"01:45.590 ","End":"01:47.300","Text":"The binding of the enzymes because of"},{"Start":"01:47.300 ","End":"01:51.320","Text":"this complementation to the transition state molecules is exogenic,"},{"Start":"01:51.320 ","End":"01:52.715","Text":"meaning it releases energy."},{"Start":"01:52.715 ","End":"01:59.150","Text":"This energy that\u0027s released by this binding reduces the activation energy."},{"Start":"01:59.150 ","End":"02:02.705","Text":"It becomes from this big arrow to this small arrow,"},{"Start":"02:02.705 ","End":"02:07.190","Text":"and thus the reaction can go"},{"Start":"02:07.190 ","End":"02:12.270","Text":"through and it happens at a much higher rate than would naturally."},{"Start":"02:12.270 ","End":"02:14.180","Text":"If we\u0027re looking here,"},{"Start":"02:14.180 ","End":"02:16.550","Text":"another illustration just to visualize it."},{"Start":"02:16.550 ","End":"02:18.260","Text":"Because I want make sure you understand this concept."},{"Start":"02:18.260 ","End":"02:19.910","Text":"Again, we have the y-axis here,"},{"Start":"02:19.910 ","End":"02:21.095","Text":"it\u0027s written total energy."},{"Start":"02:21.095 ","End":"02:22.585","Text":"Here it\u0027s written free energy,"},{"Start":"02:22.585 ","End":"02:25.200","Text":"bottom line it\u0027s energy that\u0027s invested,"},{"Start":"02:25.200 ","End":"02:27.140","Text":"and then you have on the left,"},{"Start":"02:27.140 ","End":"02:28.850","Text":"the uncatalyzed reaction pathway,"},{"Start":"02:28.850 ","End":"02:30.710","Text":"the enzyme-catalyzed reaction pathway."},{"Start":"02:30.710 ","End":"02:32.270","Text":"You see the rate is quicker,"},{"Start":"02:32.270 ","End":"02:36.890","Text":"the reaction happens faster and energy needed to be invested is lower."},{"Start":"02:36.890 ","End":"02:40.370","Text":"Looking here, a different way of looking at it on the same graph."},{"Start":"02:40.370 ","End":"02:41.915","Text":"Again, Y-axis free energy."},{"Start":"02:41.915 ","End":"02:45.350","Text":"X-axis progress of the reaction when you\u0027re looking at it,"},{"Start":"02:45.350 ","End":"02:48.350","Text":"black is without an enzyme."},{"Start":"02:48.350 ","End":"02:50.870","Text":"You have higher energy that needs to be"},{"Start":"02:50.870 ","End":"02:54.410","Text":"brought invested in order for the reaction to occur."},{"Start":"02:54.410 ","End":"02:59.690","Text":"The activation energy with enzyme is lower."},{"Start":"02:59.690 ","End":"03:03.590","Text":"The enzyme complementing the reactants release energy."},{"Start":"03:03.590 ","End":"03:05.960","Text":"Therefore, the activation energy of the reaction"},{"Start":"03:05.960 ","End":"03:08.705","Text":"is lower and therefore you see the red line it\u0027s lower,"},{"Start":"03:08.705 ","End":"03:11.735","Text":"less energy needs to be invested."},{"Start":"03:11.735 ","End":"03:14.030","Text":"If you see we\u0027re starting to get product here,"},{"Start":"03:14.030 ","End":"03:15.950","Text":"the reaction is happening faster,"},{"Start":"03:15.950 ","End":"03:19.040","Text":"at the end they come together because once you have the products,"},{"Start":"03:19.040 ","End":"03:20.630","Text":"they\u0027re at the same place,"},{"Start":"03:20.630 ","End":"03:22.790","Text":"but this happens earlier."},{"Start":"03:22.790 ","End":"03:24.365","Text":"If we look here,"},{"Start":"03:24.365 ","End":"03:27.120","Text":"this is the reaction where products come."},{"Start":"03:27.120 ","End":"03:31.145","Text":"At this point where products result at this point,"},{"Start":"03:31.145 ","End":"03:32.570","Text":"you see that the red,"},{"Start":"03:32.570 ","End":"03:36.500","Text":"the enzyme-catalyzed reaction happens quicker"},{"Start":"03:36.500 ","End":"03:41.720","Text":"while the noncatalyzed has not yet reached that point."},{"Start":"03:41.720 ","End":"03:43.730","Text":"Enzymes can further contribute to catalysis when"},{"Start":"03:43.730 ","End":"03:46.850","Text":"2 or more reactants bind to the enzyme surface close to each other,"},{"Start":"03:46.850 ","End":"03:50.090","Text":"and with stereospecific orientations that favor the reaction."},{"Start":"03:50.090 ","End":"03:51.440","Text":"If you have for example,"},{"Start":"03:51.440 ","End":"03:54.215","Text":"2 monomers or 2 reactants that are coming together,"},{"Start":"03:54.215 ","End":"04:00.590","Text":"you can see if you have 1 enzyme that has 2 binding sites for the 2 substrates,"},{"Start":"04:00.590 ","End":"04:03.545","Text":"it can come together right next to each other,"},{"Start":"04:03.545 ","End":"04:08.590","Text":"and therefore it catalyzes the reaction and contributes further."},{"Start":"04:08.590 ","End":"04:11.210","Text":"Here\u0027s another example. You have an enzyme,"},{"Start":"04:11.210 ","End":"04:13.490","Text":"1, 2, 3 is the shape."},{"Start":"04:13.490 ","End":"04:15.650","Text":"The 2 substrates they come together and fit."},{"Start":"04:15.650 ","End":"04:17.660","Text":"This is the active site."},{"Start":"04:17.660 ","End":"04:21.560","Text":"They come into the active site of the enzyme."},{"Start":"04:21.560 ","End":"04:26.560","Text":"The enzyme catalyzes the reaction and it results in the product which were"},{"Start":"04:26.560 ","End":"04:32.135","Text":"the 2 pieces that were set into the enzyme right next to each other."},{"Start":"04:32.135 ","End":"04:35.450","Text":"These factors along with others result in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction to"},{"Start":"04:35.450 ","End":"04:39.440","Text":"occur at a much greater rate than the uncatalyzed reactions,"},{"Start":"04:39.440 ","End":"04:42.245","Text":"10^12 times faster than the latter."},{"Start":"04:42.245 ","End":"04:45.215","Text":"That is significantly faster than the latter."},{"Start":"04:45.215 ","End":"04:47.610","Text":"This is 1,000,000,"},{"Start":"04:47.610 ","End":"04:48.990","Text":"1,000,000 times faster."},{"Start":"04:48.990 ","End":"04:50.415","Text":"This is 1,000,000."},{"Start":"04:50.415 ","End":"04:54.025","Text":"It\u0027s 1,000,000 times 1,000,000 times faster than the latter."},{"Start":"04:54.025 ","End":"04:56.810","Text":"In essence, the activation energy of a reaction"},{"Start":"04:56.810 ","End":"05:00.915","Text":"determines the rate at which it will proceed."},{"Start":"05:00.915 ","End":"05:03.770","Text":"The higher the activation energy,"},{"Start":"05:03.770 ","End":"05:06.560","Text":"the slower the chemical reaction because there will"},{"Start":"05:06.560 ","End":"05:09.755","Text":"have to be an increase in energy investment,"},{"Start":"05:09.755 ","End":"05:14.695","Text":"or a bigger change with lowering the activation energy."},{"Start":"05:14.695 ","End":"05:16.940","Text":"If cellular temperatures alone provided"},{"Start":"05:16.940 ","End":"05:19.430","Text":"enough heat energy to overcome activation barriers,"},{"Start":"05:19.430 ","End":"05:23.540","Text":"the cells\u0027 essential components would disintegrate and concentrations would constantly"},{"Start":"05:23.540 ","End":"05:25.850","Text":"fluctuate which would lead to instability"},{"Start":"05:25.850 ","End":"05:28.400","Text":"of the steady state we mentioned in a previous section."},{"Start":"05:28.400 ","End":"05:31.520","Text":"This is why there\u0027s this built in because if you\u0027re wondering well,"},{"Start":"05:31.520 ","End":"05:35.225","Text":"why would we need this activation energy that blocks reactions from occurring?"},{"Start":"05:35.225 ","End":"05:38.000","Text":"But it\u0027s because we don\u0027t want them to occur non stop."},{"Start":"05:38.000 ","End":"05:39.650","Text":"We don\u0027t want them to occur at any point."},{"Start":"05:39.650 ","End":"05:41.570","Text":"We want some regulation and having"},{"Start":"05:41.570 ","End":"05:46.325","Text":"this activation energy that is something that needs to be overcomed and having"},{"Start":"05:46.325 ","End":"05:50.540","Text":"enzymes that are specific to specific certain reactants and"},{"Start":"05:50.540 ","End":"05:55.000","Text":"certain conditions make this a more regulated process,"},{"Start":"05:55.000 ","End":"06:01.190","Text":"and allows to maintain this dynamics that steady state in the cell that is needed."},{"Start":"06:01.190 ","End":"06:02.705","Text":"Let\u0027s talk about the rate."},{"Start":"06:02.705 ","End":"06:04.220","Text":"I touched upon it a minute ago."},{"Start":"06:04.220 ","End":"06:05.540","Text":"Let\u0027s go into it a little bit."},{"Start":"06:05.540 ","End":"06:09.035","Text":"The activation energy of a reaction determines the rate at which it will proceed."},{"Start":"06:09.035 ","End":"06:10.610","Text":"The higher the activation energy,"},{"Start":"06:10.610 ","End":"06:12.230","Text":"the slower the chemical reaction."},{"Start":"06:12.230 ","End":"06:15.020","Text":"Let\u0027s dive into what I just mentioned."},{"Start":"06:15.020 ","End":"06:19.540","Text":"Rate, the activation energy of a reaction determines the rate at which it will proceed."},{"Start":"06:19.540 ","End":"06:22.655","Text":"The activation energy, this right here,"},{"Start":"06:22.655 ","End":"06:30.800","Text":"this peak that basically is the barrier of the reaction to occur,"},{"Start":"06:30.800 ","End":"06:33.710","Text":"determines the rate at which you\u0027ll proceed."},{"Start":"06:33.710 ","End":"06:35.690","Text":"The higher the activation energy,"},{"Start":"06:35.690 ","End":"06:37.460","Text":"the bigger this is,"},{"Start":"06:37.460 ","End":"06:40.430","Text":"the slower the chemical reaction will occur."},{"Start":"06:40.430 ","End":"06:44.540","Text":"If now I have a much higher peak, again,"},{"Start":"06:44.540 ","End":"06:47.810","Text":"if we\u0027re looking at this line where the reactants starts occurring,"},{"Start":"06:47.810 ","End":"06:50.720","Text":"products starts happening because this is larger peak,"},{"Start":"06:50.720 ","End":"06:52.970","Text":"this is where we\u0027re going to see products for"},{"Start":"06:52.970 ","End":"06:59.520","Text":"this activation energy that is a little smaller,"},{"Start":"06:59.800 ","End":"07:05.060","Text":"and this is where we\u0027re going to see products within the reaction pathway"},{"Start":"07:05.060 ","End":"07:10.050","Text":"or timeline for this activation energy."},{"Start":"07:10.050 ","End":"07:12.690","Text":"Stability and steady state."},{"Start":"07:12.690 ","End":"07:16.790","Text":"The activation energy is important in maintaining the steady state of the cell."},{"Start":"07:16.790 ","End":"07:19.550","Text":"This is again, just to clarify what I explained a second ago,"},{"Start":"07:19.550 ","End":"07:21.320","Text":"we had talked about the steady state,"},{"Start":"07:21.320 ","End":"07:23.090","Text":"the dynamic steady state that cells need to"},{"Start":"07:23.090 ","End":"07:25.280","Text":"have a certain concentration of certain molecules,"},{"Start":"07:25.280 ","End":"07:28.960","Text":"of certain proteins, of nucleic acids."},{"Start":"07:28.960 ","End":"07:31.040","Text":"You need some stability,"},{"Start":"07:31.040 ","End":"07:32.870","Text":"at the same time they need to be processed,"},{"Start":"07:32.870 ","End":"07:34.850","Text":"or broken down in certain situations,"},{"Start":"07:34.850 ","End":"07:38.960","Text":"or certain cells need them to be built up or have higher concentrations than other cells."},{"Start":"07:38.960 ","End":"07:43.805","Text":"Therefore, there needs to be something that regulates and maintains it."},{"Start":"07:43.805 ","End":"07:46.070","Text":"The stability, the steady state,"},{"Start":"07:46.070 ","End":"07:52.815","Text":"and the activation energy is crucial in maintaining this steady state in the cell."},{"Start":"07:52.815 ","End":"07:57.200","Text":"Moving forward, most cellular catalysts are proteins or enzymes."},{"Start":"07:57.200 ","End":"07:58.670","Text":"We have our enzymes,"},{"Start":"07:58.670 ","End":"08:01.985","Text":"we have a protein,"},{"Start":"08:01.985 ","End":"08:03.995","Text":"we have a pocket."},{"Start":"08:03.995 ","End":"08:07.850","Text":"It has the substrate that can fit into it."},{"Start":"08:07.850 ","End":"08:14.255","Text":"This is 3D structure of an actual protein of an enzyme"},{"Start":"08:14.255 ","End":"08:20.795","Text":"that has a pocket that is complimentary to a certain substrate."},{"Start":"08:20.795 ","End":"08:22.520","Text":"This is the substrate,"},{"Start":"08:22.520 ","End":"08:28.110","Text":"this is the reactant that fits into that enzyme\u0027s pocket,"},{"Start":"08:28.110 ","End":"08:31.040","Text":"into that enzyme\u0027s mouth that\u0027s illustrated here by this."},{"Start":"08:31.040 ","End":"08:38.990","Text":"This is more a 3D crystallography representation of this protein of an enzyme."},{"Start":"08:38.990 ","End":"08:42.230","Text":"Most cellular catalysts are proteins,"},{"Start":"08:42.230 ","End":"08:47.825","Text":"specifically enzymes and we know that enzymes are a type of protein."},{"Start":"08:47.825 ","End":"08:52.445","Text":"Now there are some RNA molecules that have enzymatic activity as well."},{"Start":"08:52.445 ","End":"08:54.695","Text":"I will touch upon those later."},{"Start":"08:54.695 ","End":"08:58.160","Text":"But most of them are proteins,"},{"Start":"08:58.160 ","End":"09:03.695","Text":"or enzymes and not RNA molecules yet those also exist."},{"Start":"09:03.695 ","End":"09:07.505","Text":"Each enzyme catalyzes a specific reaction,"},{"Start":"09:07.505 ","End":"09:11.075","Text":"and each reaction in the cell is catalyzed by a different enzyme."},{"Start":"09:11.075 ","End":"09:13.400","Text":"That sounds like circular explanation."},{"Start":"09:13.400 ","End":"09:17.705","Text":"But it\u0027s just to say that each enzyme can catalyze a specific reaction,"},{"Start":"09:17.705 ","End":"09:21.020","Text":"something that it\u0027s associated"},{"Start":"09:21.020 ","End":"09:26.225","Text":"with because it is complementary to the reaction substrate."},{"Start":"09:26.225 ","End":"09:30.020","Text":"Each reaction in the cell is catalyzed by a different enzyme."},{"Start":"09:30.020 ","End":"09:32.945","Text":"Meaning that if you have a reaction A and B,"},{"Start":"09:32.945 ","End":"09:38.160","Text":"Reaction A will be catalyzed by Enzyme A,"},{"Start":"09:38.160 ","End":"09:42.060","Text":"and Reaction B will need a different enzyme to catalyze it,"},{"Start":"09:42.060 ","End":"09:44.510","Text":"in this case, Enzyme B."},{"Start":"09:44.510 ","End":"09:47.780","Text":"You see here, this is specific reaction."},{"Start":"09:47.780 ","End":"09:49.370","Text":"These are the substrates, these are the product,"},{"Start":"09:49.370 ","End":"09:51.055","Text":"this is 1 enzyme."},{"Start":"09:51.055 ","End":"09:53.450","Text":"See here you have different substrates,"},{"Start":"09:53.450 ","End":"09:55.025","Text":"different reactants, different products."},{"Start":"09:55.025 ","End":"09:57.350","Text":"This is another enzyme, it\u0027s different."},{"Start":"09:57.350 ","End":"10:02.360","Text":"Thousands of different enzymes are therefore required by each cell allowing to"},{"Start":"10:02.360 ","End":"10:08.945","Text":"lower activation barrier selectively of the many different reactions that there are."},{"Start":"10:08.945 ","End":"10:13.955","Text":"This selectivity is crucial for the effective regulation of cellular processes."},{"Start":"10:13.955 ","End":"10:18.455","Text":"Certain enzymes are present at certain times in certain locales,"},{"Start":"10:18.455 ","End":"10:23.870","Text":"in certain multiplicities favoring certain specific reactions."},{"Start":"10:23.870 ","End":"10:28.490","Text":"I said certain many times to say how specific and"},{"Start":"10:28.490 ","End":"10:34.050","Text":"unique these reactions are in specific cells,"},{"Start":"10:34.050 ","End":"10:36.000","Text":"specific locales in the cells,"},{"Start":"10:36.000 ","End":"10:39.090","Text":"specific situations, specific environments."},{"Start":"10:39.090 ","End":"10:44.015","Text":"By allowing specific reactions to proceed at significant rates at particular times,"},{"Start":"10:44.015 ","End":"10:50.735","Text":"enzymes determine how matter and energy are directed into cellular activities."},{"Start":"10:50.735 ","End":"10:55.145","Text":"You have an enzyme that helps break down glucose,"},{"Start":"10:55.145 ","End":"10:57.470","Text":"but it\u0027s not breaking it down all the time."},{"Start":"10:57.470 ","End":"10:59.945","Text":"It will actually break it down when there is"},{"Start":"10:59.945 ","End":"11:05.105","Text":"glucose beyond a certain concentration in the cell for example."},{"Start":"11:05.105 ","End":"11:06.920","Text":"If you just ate a bunch of carbs,"},{"Start":"11:06.920 ","End":"11:08.435","Text":"you have a lot of glucose now,"},{"Start":"11:08.435 ","End":"11:11.960","Text":"the enzymes are activated and will break it down."},{"Start":"11:11.960 ","End":"11:13.445","Text":"On the other hand,"},{"Start":"11:13.445 ","End":"11:15.560","Text":"if you have low amounts of glucose,"},{"Start":"11:15.560 ","End":"11:18.590","Text":"the enzymes now will not break that down."},{"Start":"11:18.590 ","End":"11:21.605","Text":"If you are working out but you haven\u0027t eaten,"},{"Start":"11:21.605 ","End":"11:23.870","Text":"you will now have enzymes that can break down"},{"Start":"11:23.870 ","End":"11:28.310","Text":"either fat cells or muscle cells so that you"},{"Start":"11:28.310 ","End":"11:35.300","Text":"can have energy by breaking these cells down into more simple biomolecules,"},{"Start":"11:35.300 ","End":"11:40.130","Text":"from a macromolecule to a simple biomolecule."},{"Start":"11:40.130 ","End":"11:43.085","Text":"These muscles are fat cells that are broken down."},{"Start":"11:43.085 ","End":"11:46.520","Text":"Now energy is released and can be used."},{"Start":"11:46.520 ","End":"11:49.430","Text":"The many enzyme-catalyzed reactions in cells are functionally"},{"Start":"11:49.430 ","End":"11:52.970","Text":"organized into many sequences of consecutive reactions,"},{"Start":"11:52.970 ","End":"11:58.550","Text":"or pathways in which the product of 1 reaction becomes the reactant in the next."},{"Start":"11:58.550 ","End":"12:03.515","Text":"These thousands of enzyme-catalyzed reactions can be in a sequence,"},{"Start":"12:03.515 ","End":"12:04.910","Text":"in a series,"},{"Start":"12:04.910 ","End":"12:07.640","Text":"in consecutive order to form"},{"Start":"12:07.640 ","End":"12:12.695","Text":"a pathway that is important for the function of an organism or the cell."},{"Start":"12:12.695 ","End":"12:13.985","Text":"If you have a cell,"},{"Start":"12:13.985 ","End":"12:15.559","Text":"it has cellular respiration."},{"Start":"12:15.559 ","End":"12:18.500","Text":"We talked about respiration, metabolism, etc."},{"Start":"12:18.500 ","End":"12:22.690","Text":"Krebs cycle is a cycle that explains this."},{"Start":"12:22.690 ","End":"12:27.665","Text":"What you see here is actually the cellular respiration, the Krebs cycle."},{"Start":"12:27.665 ","End":"12:31.580","Text":"I\u0027m not going to go into the breakdown and all the details of the Krebs cycle."},{"Start":"12:31.580 ","End":"12:36.110","Text":"This is just to illustrate how you can have reactions that have"},{"Start":"12:36.110 ","End":"12:39.455","Text":"different substrates that then"},{"Start":"12:39.455 ","End":"12:43.325","Text":"turn into a product that then become a substrate for the next step."},{"Start":"12:43.325 ","End":"12:46.085","Text":"This is 1 step with release of CO_2."},{"Start":"12:46.085 ","End":"12:48.610","Text":"You have 2 hydrogens that are invested."},{"Start":"12:48.610 ","End":"12:50.975","Text":"NAD becomes NADH."},{"Start":"12:50.975 ","End":"12:55.115","Text":"You have another case where CO_2 is invested."},{"Start":"12:55.115 ","End":"12:59.700","Text":"Now you can have NADH turning into NAD,"},{"Start":"12:59.700 ","End":"13:05.925","Text":"you\u0027ll have ATP released meaning this is a cycle it\u0027s a sequence of events."},{"Start":"13:05.925 ","End":"13:09.020","Text":"With that, we\u0027ve completed Part II of Chemical Reactions, Activation Energy,"},{"Start":"13:09.020 ","End":"13:10.790","Text":"and Enzymes, and you should be pros and be"},{"Start":"13:10.790 ","End":"13:12.670","Text":"able to explain how enzymes catalyze reactions,"},{"Start":"13:12.670 ","End":"13:17.200","Text":"understand the relationship between magnitude of activation energy and rate of reaction,"},{"Start":"13:17.200 ","End":"13:19.100","Text":"and grasp the connection of the specificity of"},{"Start":"13:19.100 ","End":"13:21.320","Text":"enzymes and its importance in cell regulation."},{"Start":"13:21.320 ","End":"13:22.910","Text":"In general, when we step back,"},{"Start":"13:22.910 ","End":"13:27.515","Text":"this entire section we covered the significance of enzyme\u0027s cellular activity,"},{"Start":"13:27.515 ","End":"13:30.150","Text":"we explained activation energy,"},{"Start":"13:30.150 ","End":"13:33.755","Text":"and we discussed how chemical reactions play a role in energy transfer."},{"Start":"13:33.755 ","End":"13:36.540","Text":"From here, we can move on to the exercises."}],"ID":27055},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 21","Duration":"1m 29s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26168,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.240","Text":"Hi there. Let\u0027s talk about chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"00:03.240 ","End":"00:09.705","Text":"activation energy and enzymes within physical foundation and see what we remember."},{"Start":"00:09.705 ","End":"00:13.695","Text":"What important general role do enzymes have in an organism?"},{"Start":"00:13.695 ","End":"00:17.900","Text":"The answer, they act as biocatalysts that considerably"},{"Start":"00:17.900 ","End":"00:22.840","Text":"enhance the rate of chemical reactions without being consumed in the process."},{"Start":"00:22.840 ","End":"00:24.514","Text":"They are bio catalysts,"},{"Start":"00:24.514 ","End":"00:26.660","Text":"they enhance the rate of a chemical reaction,"},{"Start":"00:26.660 ","End":"00:29.375","Text":"and they are not consumed in the process."},{"Start":"00:29.375 ","End":"00:32.120","Text":"They can recycle and do this over and over again."},{"Start":"00:32.120 ","End":"00:34.910","Text":"Almost every chemical reaction in a cell is able to"},{"Start":"00:34.910 ","End":"00:37.730","Text":"create a significant rate due to the presence of enzymes."},{"Start":"00:37.730 ","End":"00:41.374","Text":"We had mentioned that otherwise without the enzymes,"},{"Start":"00:41.374 ","End":"00:45.980","Text":"chemical reactions would take thousands of years to occur spontaneously."},{"Start":"00:45.980 ","End":"00:49.535","Text":"Here you have an enzyme that has 2 substrates 1 and 2."},{"Start":"00:49.535 ","End":"00:52.205","Text":"They bind side-by-side and then"},{"Start":"00:52.205 ","End":"00:58.595","Text":"this enzyme substrate complex is complete and the product is then released."},{"Start":"00:58.595 ","End":"01:03.845","Text":"Here you have an enzyme that takes a monomer, enzyme A,"},{"Start":"01:03.845 ","End":"01:07.730","Text":"and it will take this and with a chemical reaction or then"},{"Start":"01:07.730 ","End":"01:11.749","Text":"take this and bind these together in a chain one-by-one,"},{"Start":"01:11.749 ","End":"01:14.180","Text":"add them and make this polymer from the monomer."},{"Start":"01:14.180 ","End":"01:17.120","Text":"While enzyme B will take the polymer and one-by-one,"},{"Start":"01:17.120 ","End":"01:19.730","Text":"break these monomers from the polymer,"},{"Start":"01:19.730 ","End":"01:22.550","Text":"break them apart and release the monomers."},{"Start":"01:22.550 ","End":"01:27.350","Text":"That is what the important rule enzymes have in an organism."},{"Start":"01:27.350 ","End":"01:29.970","Text":"See you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27056},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 22","Duration":"2m 4s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26169,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.700","Text":"Let\u0027s see what we know about chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"00:02.700 ","End":"00:06.900","Text":"activation energy, and enzymes within physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:06.900 ","End":"00:12.758","Text":"What is the activation barrier and activation energy Delta G plus plus?"},{"Start":"00:12.758 ","End":"00:19.650","Text":"The activation barrier is what every chemical reaction must overcome in order to proceed."},{"Start":"00:19.650 ","End":"00:22.680","Text":"The breaking of bonds and formation of new ones requires"},{"Start":"00:22.680 ","End":"00:26.400","Text":"a transition state which has an extremely short lifetime."},{"Start":"00:26.400 ","End":"00:27.870","Text":"Remember we said femtoseconds,"},{"Start":"00:27.870 ","End":"00:31.770","Text":"it is the temporary state of molecular structure in which the molecule is no longer"},{"Start":"00:31.770 ","End":"00:35.955","Text":"a substrate but not yet a product."},{"Start":"00:35.955 ","End":"00:37.695","Text":"If we\u0027re looking here, remember,"},{"Start":"00:37.695 ","End":"00:42.285","Text":"this illustration defines you have a straight line here once it is the transition state."},{"Start":"00:42.285 ","End":"00:43.790","Text":"It is not completely broken yet."},{"Start":"00:43.790 ","End":"00:45.790","Text":"It is no longer this reactant,"},{"Start":"00:45.790 ","End":"00:47.000","Text":"it doesn\u0027t look exactly the same,"},{"Start":"00:47.000 ","End":"00:49.790","Text":"but it\u0027s not this product either yet."},{"Start":"00:49.790 ","End":"00:51.470","Text":"It is the transition state."},{"Start":"00:51.470 ","End":"00:55.204","Text":"It is right at the highest point of energy,"},{"Start":"00:55.204 ","End":"01:00.919","Text":"and it is extremely short-lived and cannot be isolated."},{"Start":"01:00.919 ","End":"01:02.690","Text":"It is the state corresponding to"},{"Start":"01:02.690 ","End":"01:05.765","Text":"the highest energy along the reaction coordinate we have."},{"Start":"01:05.765 ","End":"01:09.040","Text":"The x-axis is the reaction coordinate,"},{"Start":"01:09.040 ","End":"01:14.300","Text":"the y-axis is the energy and you see the transition state is at"},{"Start":"01:14.300 ","End":"01:20.315","Text":"the highest point of energy along the reaction coordinate."},{"Start":"01:20.315 ","End":"01:22.550","Text":"This is the highest point, yes."},{"Start":"01:22.550 ","End":"01:24.935","Text":"This is where the transition state lies."},{"Start":"01:24.935 ","End":"01:28.420","Text":"The difference of energy between the reactant in its ground state,"},{"Start":"01:28.420 ","End":"01:34.745","Text":"in its initial state between this and in its transition state this."},{"Start":"01:34.745 ","End":"01:40.445","Text":"This difference is the activation energy EA,"},{"Start":"01:40.445 ","End":"01:42.260","Text":"also known as Delta G plus plus,"},{"Start":"01:42.260 ","End":"01:49.700","Text":"because we also know reactions in terms of Gibbs free energy."},{"Start":"01:49.700 ","End":"01:52.280","Text":"In terms of Gibbs free energy,"},{"Start":"01:52.280 ","End":"01:54.890","Text":"this is the highest energy point."},{"Start":"01:54.890 ","End":"01:59.320","Text":"It\u0027s not just Delta G, it\u0027s plus plus."},{"Start":"01:59.320 ","End":"02:04.600","Text":"With that, we completed this exercise and let\u0027s try out some more."}],"ID":27057},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 23","Duration":"4m 18s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26170,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.680 ","End":"00:04.530","Text":"Hey, welcome back to exercises on chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"00:04.530 ","End":"00:08.145","Text":"activation energy, and enzymes and the topic of physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:08.145 ","End":"00:10.320","Text":"Which of the following is the best way to judge"},{"Start":"00:10.320 ","End":"00:14.205","Text":"the relative activation energies between 2 given chemical reactions?"},{"Start":"00:14.205 ","End":"00:17.685","Text":"A, Compare the delta G values between the 2 reactions,"},{"Start":"00:17.685 ","End":"00:21.240","Text":"B, compare the reaction rates, C,"},{"Start":"00:21.240 ","End":"00:24.135","Text":"compare their ideal environmental conditions,"},{"Start":"00:24.135 ","End":"00:28.460","Text":"and D, compare the spontaneity between the 2 reactions."},{"Start":"00:28.460 ","End":"00:30.620","Text":"Again, we\u0027re asking what is the best way to judge"},{"Start":"00:30.620 ","End":"00:35.350","Text":"the relative activation energies between 2 given chemical reactions."},{"Start":"00:35.350 ","End":"00:40.460","Text":"We didn\u0027t really talk about comparing delta G values between 2 reactions."},{"Start":"00:40.460 ","End":"00:46.370","Text":"What there was mentioned is that Delta G is not actually affected by activation energy."},{"Start":"00:46.370 ","End":"00:49.280","Text":"We can think of the previous section and the formulas we have for Delta G,"},{"Start":"00:49.280 ","End":"00:51.800","Text":"activation energy was not part of it."},{"Start":"00:51.800 ","End":"00:57.785","Text":"Furthermore, we talk about activation energy within 1 reaction,"},{"Start":"00:57.785 ","End":"01:00.620","Text":"but not between 2 different reactions"},{"Start":"01:00.620 ","End":"01:03.950","Text":"because then there\u0027s a play of the enzymes and whatnot."},{"Start":"01:03.950 ","End":"01:07.535","Text":"This is incorrect. Now,"},{"Start":"01:07.535 ","End":"01:11.630","Text":"we can look at the relative activation energy and compare the reaction rates."},{"Start":"01:11.630 ","End":"01:15.695","Text":"Well, we did say that the higher the activation energy,"},{"Start":"01:15.695 ","End":"01:18.230","Text":"the longer it will take the reaction to occur."},{"Start":"01:18.230 ","End":"01:25.490","Text":"The rate can be affected by the magnitude of the activation energy."},{"Start":"01:25.490 ","End":"01:30.515","Text":"If a reaction has a high activation energy,"},{"Start":"01:30.515 ","End":"01:34.185","Text":"like my drawing, and this is the timeline,"},{"Start":"01:34.185 ","End":"01:36.240","Text":"this is x reaction,"},{"Start":"01:36.240 ","End":"01:38.655","Text":"and this is y,"},{"Start":"01:38.655 ","End":"01:42.080","Text":"so it\u0027s energy, reaction B,"},{"Start":"01:42.080 ","End":"01:45.365","Text":"that has a lower activation energy,"},{"Start":"01:45.365 ","End":"01:48.510","Text":"when this reaction occurs,"},{"Start":"01:48.560 ","End":"01:51.675","Text":"and this is where products form,"},{"Start":"01:51.675 ","End":"01:55.860","Text":"it will happen before reaction A."},{"Start":"01:55.860 ","End":"01:57.075","Text":"Again, reaction A,"},{"Start":"01:57.075 ","End":"01:59.100","Text":"has to go all the way up here,"},{"Start":"01:59.100 ","End":"02:02.570","Text":"and so trying to look at the same line over here,"},{"Start":"02:02.570 ","End":"02:04.865","Text":"all products are formed."},{"Start":"02:04.865 ","End":"02:10.670","Text":"It is later in the timeline of the reaction that this occurs."},{"Start":"02:10.670 ","End":"02:17.675","Text":"Relative activation energy and its magnitude can give us the reaction rates."},{"Start":"02:17.675 ","End":"02:19.775","Text":"This may be correct."},{"Start":"02:19.775 ","End":"02:21.150","Text":"Let\u0027s move to the next one."},{"Start":"02:21.150 ","End":"02:24.095","Text":"Compare their ideal environmental conditions."},{"Start":"02:24.095 ","End":"02:25.970","Text":"Well, we didn\u0027t really talk about that,"},{"Start":"02:25.970 ","End":"02:29.330","Text":"and the ideal environmental conditions are"},{"Start":"02:29.330 ","End":"02:33.590","Text":"significant and specific to the enzyme and the reaction."},{"Start":"02:33.590 ","End":"02:38.270","Text":"This again, doesn\u0027t mean anything with regard to the rate because you can"},{"Start":"02:38.270 ","End":"02:44.700","Text":"have ideal conditions for 1 enzyme while they\u0027re not ideal for the other one,"},{"Start":"02:44.700 ","End":"02:47.030","Text":"and so the reaction will occur or won\u0027t occur,"},{"Start":"02:47.030 ","End":"02:50.085","Text":"but it doesn\u0027t relate to the actual rates,"},{"Start":"02:50.085 ","End":"02:55.490","Text":"and you can have ideal environmental conditions that are different for the 2 enzymes,"},{"Start":"02:55.490 ","End":"02:57.710","Text":"even within the same cell."},{"Start":"02:57.710 ","End":"03:02.695","Text":"When you have environmental conditions for A,"},{"Start":"03:02.695 ","End":"03:07.205","Text":"it means that you need to have these things present,"},{"Start":"03:07.205 ","End":"03:10.985","Text":"and the environmental conditions of B,"},{"Start":"03:10.985 ","End":"03:13.775","Text":"you need to have these things present."},{"Start":"03:13.775 ","End":"03:15.605","Text":"It doesn\u0027t mean that the reaction rate,"},{"Start":"03:15.605 ","End":"03:18.815","Text":"which can be 1 femtosecond,"},{"Start":"03:18.815 ","End":"03:20.510","Text":"can\u0027t be the same for both."},{"Start":"03:20.510 ","End":"03:23.390","Text":"C doesn\u0027t sound correct."},{"Start":"03:23.390 ","End":"03:26.585","Text":"Next is compare the spontaneity between the 2 reactions."},{"Start":"03:26.585 ","End":"03:30.395","Text":"Well, if a reaction is spontaneous or not,"},{"Start":"03:30.395 ","End":"03:33.320","Text":"estrogenic or the Delta G is such,"},{"Start":"03:33.320 ","End":"03:36.815","Text":"again, is not a factor that plays into the rate."},{"Start":"03:36.815 ","End":"03:40.955","Text":"So this is similar to what we mentioned in A, therefore,"},{"Start":"03:40.955 ","End":"03:48.350","Text":"I would say this is incorrect and that leaves us with B being the correct answer."},{"Start":"03:48.350 ","End":"03:54.950","Text":"In order to judge the relative activation energies between 2 given chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"03:54.950 ","End":"03:57.860","Text":"you can compare their reaction rates."},{"Start":"03:57.860 ","End":"03:59.930","Text":"The higher the activation energy,"},{"Start":"03:59.930 ","End":"04:02.735","Text":"the slower the reaction and vice versa."},{"Start":"04:02.735 ","End":"04:05.780","Text":"Again, the best way to judge the relative activation energies"},{"Start":"04:05.780 ","End":"04:09.120","Text":"between 2 given chemical reactions is to compare the reaction rates,"},{"Start":"04:09.120 ","End":"04:10.610","Text":"and the higher the activation energy,"},{"Start":"04:10.610 ","End":"04:12.815","Text":"the slower the reaction and vice versa,"},{"Start":"04:12.815 ","End":"04:14.810","Text":"the lower the activation energy,"},{"Start":"04:14.810 ","End":"04:16.445","Text":"the faster it will occur."},{"Start":"04:16.445 ","End":"04:18.900","Text":"See you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27058},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 24","Duration":"2m 26s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26171,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.540","Text":"Hi. We\u0027re in the topic of Physical Foundation,"},{"Start":"00:03.540 ","End":"00:05.640","Text":"covering chemical reactions, activation energy,"},{"Start":"00:05.640 ","End":"00:08.220","Text":"and enzymes, and testing our knowledge on this."},{"Start":"00:08.220 ","End":"00:11.790","Text":"How do enzymes contribute and catalyze reactions?"},{"Start":"00:11.790 ","End":"00:14.790","Text":"Enzymes catalyze reactions by providing a surface that"},{"Start":"00:14.790 ","End":"00:17.850","Text":"complements the transition state in stereochemistry,"},{"Start":"00:17.850 ","End":"00:20.265","Text":"polarity, and charge."},{"Start":"00:20.265 ","End":"00:24.270","Text":"The binding of enzymes to the transition state molecules is exergonic,"},{"Start":"00:24.270 ","End":"00:29.160","Text":"and the energy released by this binding reduces the activation energy for the reaction,"},{"Start":"00:29.160 ","End":"00:31.260","Text":"and thus increases the reaction rate significantly."},{"Start":"00:31.260 ","End":"00:36.690","Text":"The enzymes actually complements the reactants, the substrates,"},{"Start":"00:36.690 ","End":"00:41.077","Text":"in order to bring them into the transition state,"},{"Start":"00:41.077 ","End":"00:44.390","Text":"and this allows the activation energy to be"},{"Start":"00:44.390 ","End":"00:49.490","Text":"lowered and the reaction to occur at a significant rate."},{"Start":"00:49.490 ","End":"00:53.510","Text":"Enzymes can further contribute to catalysis when 2 or more reactants bind to"},{"Start":"00:53.510 ","End":"00:55.910","Text":"the enzyme surface close to each"},{"Start":"00:55.910 ","End":"01:00.260","Text":"other and with stereospecific orientations that favor the reaction."},{"Start":"01:00.260 ","End":"01:05.000","Text":"If we\u0027re looking, not only do they lower the activation energy,"},{"Start":"01:05.000 ","End":"01:13.130","Text":"an enzyme can also have a binding site for 2 substrates on its surface,"},{"Start":"01:13.130 ","End":"01:14.755","Text":"like here, 1 and 2."},{"Start":"01:14.755 ","End":"01:19.310","Text":"They can bind 1 next to the other in the specific orientation,"},{"Start":"01:19.310 ","End":"01:21.185","Text":"not 1 here and 2 here,"},{"Start":"01:21.185 ","End":"01:23.090","Text":"but specifically 1 and 2,"},{"Start":"01:23.090 ","End":"01:28.700","Text":"and then this allows for the rate of the reaction to occur"},{"Start":"01:28.700 ","End":"01:35.635","Text":"much faster and with the specific orientation that favors this reaction to occur."},{"Start":"01:35.635 ","End":"01:38.840","Text":"Again, enzymes contribute and catalyze"},{"Start":"01:38.840 ","End":"01:42.260","Text":"reactions by providing a surface that complements the substrate,"},{"Start":"01:42.260 ","End":"01:47.441","Text":"the reactants, the transition state of the reactants."},{"Start":"01:47.441 ","End":"01:50.285","Text":"This binding to the transition state is exergonic,"},{"Start":"01:50.285 ","End":"01:53.330","Text":"meaning, it releases energy."},{"Start":"01:53.330 ","End":"01:55.865","Text":"Exergonic, energy is released."},{"Start":"01:55.865 ","End":"01:59.000","Text":"Thus, this energy can reduce"},{"Start":"01:59.000 ","End":"02:02.450","Text":"the activation energy for the reaction because this energy can now be"},{"Start":"02:02.450 ","End":"02:05.120","Text":"used to create the reaction and thus increases"},{"Start":"02:05.120 ","End":"02:09.620","Text":"the reaction rate significantly so the reaction now occurs quicker."},{"Start":"02:09.620 ","End":"02:12.440","Text":"They can further contribute to catalysis by,"},{"Start":"02:12.440 ","End":"02:14.209","Text":"actually, having on their surface,"},{"Start":"02:14.209 ","End":"02:17.720","Text":"the ability to bind a couple of substrates close to each"},{"Start":"02:17.720 ","End":"02:22.295","Text":"other in a specific orientation and thus favor the reaction."},{"Start":"02:22.295 ","End":"02:27.240","Text":"There you have it. See you in the next exercise or section."}],"ID":27059},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 25","Duration":"2m 56s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26172,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.470","Text":"We\u0027re back with an exercise within this section of chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"00:04.470 ","End":"00:07.860","Text":"activation energy, and enzymes in the topic of physical foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.860 ","End":"00:10.305","Text":"Which of the following is not true about enzymes?"},{"Start":"00:10.305 ","End":"00:13.770","Text":"A, they\u0027re usually made of amino acids."},{"Start":"00:13.770 ","End":"00:18.085","Text":"B, they lower the activation energy of chemical reactions."},{"Start":"00:18.085 ","End":"00:22.980","Text":"C, each one is specific to the particular substrate or substrates to which it binds."},{"Start":"00:22.980 ","End":"00:25.845","Text":"D, they increase Delta G of reactions."},{"Start":"00:25.845 ","End":"00:29.335","Text":"Which one is not true about enzymes?"},{"Start":"00:29.335 ","End":"00:32.315","Text":"A, they\u0027re usually made of amino acids."},{"Start":"00:32.315 ","End":"00:36.110","Text":"We know that an enzyme is a protein."},{"Start":"00:36.110 ","End":"00:39.634","Text":"Protein is a polymer,"},{"Start":"00:39.634 ","End":"00:41.945","Text":"it\u0027s a macromolecule, it\u0027s a macro biomolecule."},{"Start":"00:41.945 ","End":"00:43.220","Text":"What are proteins made of?"},{"Start":"00:43.220 ","End":"00:44.510","Text":"Well, the building blocks,"},{"Start":"00:44.510 ","End":"00:49.230","Text":"the monomers of proteins are amino acids."},{"Start":"00:49.700 ","End":"00:53.570","Text":"We cannot say the enzymes that are made of"},{"Start":"00:53.570 ","End":"00:57.350","Text":"proteins are actually composed of amino acids,"},{"Start":"00:57.350 ","End":"00:59.570","Text":"so this to me sounds like a true statement."},{"Start":"00:59.570 ","End":"01:03.335","Text":"Therefore, I would say this is not our answer,"},{"Start":"01:03.335 ","End":"01:05.915","Text":"which is not true about enzymes."},{"Start":"01:05.915 ","End":"01:08.660","Text":"They lower the activation energy of chemical reactants."},{"Start":"01:08.660 ","End":"01:13.410","Text":"Well, we just talked about how they lower the activation energy,"},{"Start":"01:13.410 ","End":"01:18.500","Text":"and this is how they allow reactions in the cells to occur in a much greater rate."},{"Start":"01:18.500 ","End":"01:21.140","Text":"Therefore, this seems like a true fact as well,"},{"Start":"01:21.140 ","End":"01:24.890","Text":"and therefore it is not the correct answer."},{"Start":"01:24.890 ","End":"01:28.610","Text":"C, enzymes, each one is specific"},{"Start":"01:28.610 ","End":"01:33.005","Text":"to the particular substrate or substrates to which it binds."},{"Start":"01:33.005 ","End":"01:37.370","Text":"Easy peasy, we keep on illustrating"},{"Start":"01:37.370 ","End":"01:41.780","Text":"enzymes with certain shape that the substrate here would be circular."},{"Start":"01:41.780 ","End":"01:45.170","Text":"Or we had the enzyme that had the ability to bind"},{"Start":"01:45.170 ","End":"01:49.070","Text":"2 substrates in a specific orientation and specific shape."},{"Start":"01:49.070 ","End":"01:52.535","Text":"Yes, each one is specific to the particular substrate."},{"Start":"01:52.535 ","End":"01:59.445","Text":"Therefore, this is a true statement and it does not answer our question the way we want."},{"Start":"01:59.445 ","End":"02:05.070","Text":"Next is D, they increase Delta G of reactions and we had talked about it,"},{"Start":"02:05.070 ","End":"02:09.285","Text":"Delta G is not actually affected."},{"Start":"02:09.285 ","End":"02:11.495","Text":"This is incorrect."},{"Start":"02:11.495 ","End":"02:15.380","Text":"What they effect is the transition state, this is affected,"},{"Start":"02:15.380 ","End":"02:21.965","Text":"but the Delta G is a matter of different parameters."},{"Start":"02:21.965 ","End":"02:28.112","Text":"If you remember the formula that we had to calculate Delta G,"},{"Start":"02:28.112 ","End":"02:31.864","Text":"it had the gas constant, the absolute temperature,"},{"Start":"02:31.864 ","End":"02:34.730","Text":"natural log of the products versus reactants,"},{"Start":"02:34.730 ","End":"02:38.210","Text":"and those are not affected by the enzyme."},{"Start":"02:38.210 ","End":"02:45.395","Text":"Therefore, D is an incorrect statement and is our correct answer for this question."},{"Start":"02:45.395 ","End":"02:53.030","Text":"Do not affect the Delta G of reaction would be the true statement."},{"Start":"02:53.030 ","End":"02:57.090","Text":"Hopefully we are clear about that. See you back here."}],"ID":27060},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 26","Duration":"4m 8s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26138,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.760","Text":"Hello. Fellow biochemistry students."},{"Start":"00:02.760 ","End":"00:05.920","Text":"We are diving into an exercise in chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"00:05.920 ","End":"00:08.320","Text":"activation energy, and enzymes."},{"Start":"00:08.320 ","End":"00:10.975","Text":"You\u0027re still in physical foundation and let\u0027s dive in."},{"Start":"00:10.975 ","End":"00:14.645","Text":"Name at least 2 characteristics of cellular catalysts,"},{"Start":"00:14.645 ","End":"00:18.835","Text":"enzymes in context of cellular reactions."},{"Start":"00:18.835 ","End":"00:23.005","Text":"As explained previously, most cellular catalysts are proteins,"},{"Start":"00:23.005 ","End":"00:29.240","Text":"enzymes, but there are some RNA molecules that have enzymatic activity."},{"Start":"00:29.630 ","End":"00:33.055","Text":"One, each enzyme catalyzes"},{"Start":"00:33.055 ","End":"00:38.649","Text":"a specific reaction and each reaction in the cell is catalyzed by a different enzyme."},{"Start":"00:38.649 ","End":"00:41.320","Text":"Enzymes are selective and specific."},{"Start":"00:41.320 ","End":"00:44.285","Text":"We can say this is"},{"Start":"00:44.285 ","End":"00:48.575","Text":"a characteristic of an enzyme and it can be said the same thing in different ways."},{"Start":"00:48.575 ","End":"00:51.725","Text":"Each enzyme catalyzes a specific reaction,"},{"Start":"00:51.725 ","End":"00:56.800","Text":"or enzymes are selective and specific to their substrate,"},{"Start":"00:56.800 ","End":"01:01.675","Text":"or we can say to reactant and a specific reaction."},{"Start":"01:01.675 ","End":"01:05.480","Text":"Two, enzymes are present in large numbers."},{"Start":"01:05.480 ","End":"01:08.300","Text":"Thousands of different enzymes are required by each cell"},{"Start":"01:08.300 ","End":"01:11.390","Text":"allowing to lower activation barriers of the many different reactions."},{"Start":"01:11.390 ","End":"01:13.790","Text":"Again, there\u0027re thousands of reactions that need to occur in"},{"Start":"01:13.790 ","End":"01:17.825","Text":"the cell in order for the cell to survive and function."},{"Start":"01:17.825 ","End":"01:21.740","Text":"This cell activity is crucial for the effective regulation of cellular processes."},{"Start":"01:21.740 ","End":"01:26.960","Text":"The specificity and this complementation to certain reactants or substrates at"},{"Start":"01:26.960 ","End":"01:30.785","Text":"certain ideal conditions is what allows to regulate"},{"Start":"01:30.785 ","End":"01:35.660","Text":"cellular processes so things just don\u0027t happen randomly with constant fluctuation."},{"Start":"01:35.660 ","End":"01:37.960","Text":"We looked this illustration."},{"Start":"01:37.960 ","End":"01:40.865","Text":"We have enzyme A and enzyme B."},{"Start":"01:40.865 ","End":"01:45.770","Text":"Enzyme A will take monomers and link them together and create a polymer."},{"Start":"01:45.770 ","End":"01:50.960","Text":"Enzyme B will take these polymers and break them down into individual monomers."},{"Start":"01:50.960 ","End":"01:53.395","Text":"This could be, for example,"},{"Start":"01:53.395 ","End":"01:57.890","Text":"binding specific nucleotides to make nucleic acids, the genetic material."},{"Start":"01:57.890 ","End":"01:59.810","Text":"You have a variety of many enzymes."},{"Start":"01:59.810 ","End":"02:04.100","Text":"You have an enzyme here that is specific to 2 substrates."},{"Start":"02:04.100 ","End":"02:06.440","Text":"Not only is it specific to this substrate,"},{"Start":"02:06.440 ","End":"02:07.925","Text":"but it\u0027s specific to this one."},{"Start":"02:07.925 ","End":"02:10.685","Text":"It\u0027s specific to the pink 1 and the purple 2."},{"Start":"02:10.685 ","End":"02:13.310","Text":"If you get a pink 2 or a different shape,"},{"Start":"02:13.310 ","End":"02:16.025","Text":"or if you get the purple 2 going on this side,"},{"Start":"02:16.025 ","End":"02:20.010","Text":"it will not bind and this reaction won\u0027t occur."},{"Start":"02:20.010 ","End":"02:24.990","Text":"This reaction will only occur when these 2 substrates exist,"},{"Start":"02:24.990 ","End":"02:28.955","Text":"both of these exact 2 substrates and they bind in this orientation,"},{"Start":"02:28.955 ","End":"02:30.665","Text":"and then you\u0027ll get the product."},{"Start":"02:30.665 ","End":"02:33.695","Text":"We mentioned 2 characteristics."},{"Start":"02:33.695 ","End":"02:37.520","Text":"These can even be broken down and said to be more."},{"Start":"02:37.520 ","End":"02:41.600","Text":"We can even say the enzymes are selected and that\u0027s one and they\u0027re specific, that\u0027s two."},{"Start":"02:41.600 ","End":"02:45.906","Text":"But I group these together and these 2 characteristics that are super-important,"},{"Start":"02:45.906 ","End":"02:48.090","Text":"each enzyme catalyzes a specific reaction."},{"Start":"02:48.090 ","End":"02:50.390","Text":"They are selective and specific and just a reminder,"},{"Start":"02:50.390 ","End":"02:53.570","Text":"each reaction in the cell is catalyzed by a different enzyme."},{"Start":"02:53.570 ","End":"02:56.090","Text":"Enzymes are present in large numbers,"},{"Start":"02:56.090 ","End":"03:00.275","Text":"thousands of different enzymes because this is required by each cell to allow"},{"Start":"03:00.275 ","End":"03:02.930","Text":"for the different reactions to occur and"},{"Start":"03:02.930 ","End":"03:05.705","Text":"to lower the activation barriers of these reactions."},{"Start":"03:05.705 ","End":"03:10.795","Text":"This selectivity is crucial for the effective regulation of cellular processes."},{"Start":"03:10.795 ","End":"03:16.460","Text":"Enzymes are a crucial factor in effective regulation of cellular processes."},{"Start":"03:16.460 ","End":"03:22.120","Text":"Three, another thing that you could have said is enzymes are present at certain times,"},{"Start":"03:22.120 ","End":"03:23.600","Text":"in certain locales, in"},{"Start":"03:23.600 ","End":"03:28.340","Text":"certain multiplicities favoring certain specific reactions per locale."},{"Start":"03:28.340 ","End":"03:31.880","Text":"By allowing specific reactions to proceed at significant rates,"},{"Start":"03:31.880 ","End":"03:33.500","Text":"at particular times,"},{"Start":"03:33.500 ","End":"03:36.500","Text":"and in specific locales of the cell or specific cells,"},{"Start":"03:36.500 ","End":"03:41.945","Text":"enzymes determine how matter and energy are directed into cellular activities."},{"Start":"03:41.945 ","End":"03:47.200","Text":"This ties back into the idea of effective regulation of cellular processes."},{"Start":"03:47.200 ","End":"03:49.590","Text":"Three is the enzymes are present at certain times,"},{"Start":"03:49.590 ","End":"03:51.585","Text":"in certain locales, in certain multiplicities."},{"Start":"03:51.585 ","End":"03:55.080","Text":"Three is the enzymes are present at certain times, in certain locales,"},{"Start":"03:55.080 ","End":"03:59.945","Text":"in certain multiplicity favoring certain specific reactions per locale and allowing"},{"Start":"03:59.945 ","End":"04:06.275","Text":"this to affect and determine how matter and energy are directed into cellular activities."},{"Start":"04:06.275 ","End":"04:09.030","Text":"That\u0027s all folks."}],"ID":27061},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 27","Duration":"1m 57s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26139,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.080 ","End":"00:05.370","Text":"Here we have another question reviewing the topic of chemical reactions,"},{"Start":"00:05.370 ","End":"00:07.350","Text":"activation energy, and enzymes."},{"Start":"00:07.350 ","End":"00:09.120","Text":"What can you explain about how"},{"Start":"00:09.120 ","End":"00:13.650","Text":"the many thousands of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in cells are organized?"},{"Start":"00:13.650 ","End":"00:17.010","Text":"Well, we\u0027ve talked about the fact that the enzyme-catalyzed reactions"},{"Start":"00:17.010 ","End":"00:20.129","Text":"in cells are functionally organized into many sequences"},{"Start":"00:20.129 ","End":"00:22.920","Text":"of consecutive reaction pathways"},{"Start":"00:22.920 ","End":"00:26.640","Text":"in which the product of one reaction becomes the reactant in the next."},{"Start":"00:26.640 ","End":"00:32.205","Text":"This is important for different functions in cycles in the cell."},{"Start":"00:32.205 ","End":"00:36.000","Text":"For example, for cellular respiration,"},{"Start":"00:36.000 ","End":"00:37.200","Text":"we have the Krebs cycle,"},{"Start":"00:37.200 ","End":"00:40.965","Text":"and this cycle is built of many steps"},{"Start":"00:40.965 ","End":"00:47.135","Text":"with products that then feed in to be the substrate of the next step."},{"Start":"00:47.135 ","End":"00:51.770","Text":"The pathways that act on the main components of cells, proteins, fats,"},{"Start":"00:51.770 ","End":"00:55.955","Text":"sugars, and nucleic acids are essentially identical in all living organisms,"},{"Start":"00:55.955 ","End":"01:03.270","Text":"and they are made of consecutive sequential reactions that occur,"},{"Start":"01:03.270 ","End":"01:07.010","Text":"and you have A plus B gives C,"},{"Start":"01:07.010 ","End":"01:15.465","Text":"and then you have C is used with D to then form E,"},{"Start":"01:15.465 ","End":"01:21.240","Text":"and then E is then used with F to form G,"},{"Start":"01:21.240 ","End":"01:28.080","Text":"and then G is broken down to become E, et cetera."},{"Start":"01:28.080 ","End":"01:30.485","Text":"The enzyme-catalyzed reactions in cells are functionally"},{"Start":"01:30.485 ","End":"01:33.620","Text":"organized in many sequences of consecutive reactions."},{"Start":"01:33.620 ","End":"01:42.825","Text":"These are pathways and are essentially identical in all living organisms."},{"Start":"01:42.825 ","End":"01:47.465","Text":"You see this taking of a reactant turning to product and then this product"},{"Start":"01:47.465 ","End":"01:52.865","Text":"being a reactant for the next step and so on and so forth."},{"Start":"01:52.865 ","End":"01:55.265","Text":"With that, we\u0027ve covered this exercise."},{"Start":"01:55.265 ","End":"01:57.810","Text":"See you back here."}],"ID":27062},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Metabolism - Enzymatic Pathway part 1","Duration":"8m 7s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26146,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.624","Text":"Hi there, welcome to Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:02.624 ","End":"00:05.985","Text":"We\u0027re covering Metabolism-Enzymatic Pathways."},{"Start":"00:05.985 ","End":"00:08.760","Text":"By the end of this section, you should be able to define metabolism,"},{"Start":"00:08.760 ","End":"00:11.130","Text":"describe the 2 major types of metabolic pathways,"},{"Start":"00:11.130 ","End":"00:13.620","Text":"and discuss how enzymes play a role in metabolism."},{"Start":"00:13.620 ","End":"00:16.200","Text":"We will separate this into 2 parts."},{"Start":"00:16.200 ","End":"00:18.960","Text":"The first part, we will define metabolism,"},{"Start":"00:18.960 ","End":"00:21.090","Text":"list the 3 main purposes of metabolism,"},{"Start":"00:21.090 ","End":"00:24.045","Text":"and discuss how enzymes play a role in metabolism."},{"Start":"00:24.045 ","End":"00:27.270","Text":"The many enzyme-catalyzed reactions in cells are functionally organized"},{"Start":"00:27.270 ","End":"00:30.510","Text":"into many sequences of consecutive reactions,"},{"Start":"00:30.510 ","End":"00:32.775","Text":"sequences of reactants,"},{"Start":"00:32.775 ","End":"00:37.155","Text":"pathways in which the product of 1 reaction becomes the reactant in the next."},{"Start":"00:37.155 ","End":"00:39.050","Text":"We mentioned this previously."},{"Start":"00:39.050 ","End":"00:43.280","Text":"For example, looking at these thousand catalyze reactions,"},{"Start":"00:43.280 ","End":"00:45.410","Text":"we have the Krebs cycle, the Krebs cycle,"},{"Start":"00:45.410 ","End":"00:47.495","Text":"it\u0027s also known as the TCA cycle."},{"Start":"00:47.495 ","End":"00:52.415","Text":"Let\u0027s try to break our teeth and say tricarboxylic acid cycle."},{"Start":"00:52.415 ","End":"00:53.720","Text":"I\u0027m not going to spell that out."},{"Start":"00:53.720 ","End":"00:54.965","Text":"It will take me forever."},{"Start":"00:54.965 ","End":"00:59.060","Text":"TCA cycle or the citric acid cycle, CAC."},{"Start":"00:59.060 ","End":"01:00.230","Text":"I\u0027m just mentioning this."},{"Start":"01:00.230 ","End":"01:02.660","Text":"You don\u0027t necessarily have to memorize depends"},{"Start":"01:02.660 ","End":"01:06.440","Text":"on what you were taught or your course or whatnot."},{"Start":"01:06.440 ","End":"01:07.910","Text":"But these are the same Krebs cycle,"},{"Start":"01:07.910 ","End":"01:10.250","Text":"I think is the most common term that\u0027s used for it."},{"Start":"01:10.250 ","End":"01:13.760","Text":"It\u0027s a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms."},{"Start":"01:13.760 ","End":"01:19.468","Text":"Aerobic organisms are the ones that use oxygen as energy,"},{"Start":"01:19.468 ","End":"01:24.695","Text":"aerobic organisms to release stored energy through the oxidization of acetate,"},{"Start":"01:24.695 ","End":"01:27.095","Text":"also known as acetyl-CoA."},{"Start":"01:27.095 ","End":"01:29.840","Text":"This is oxidized."},{"Start":"01:29.840 ","End":"01:31.895","Text":"Remember the term oxidation,"},{"Start":"01:31.895 ","End":"01:36.185","Text":"either giving oxygen that is derived,"},{"Start":"01:36.185 ","End":"01:39.080","Text":"this acetate is derived from carbohydrates, fats,"},{"Start":"01:39.080 ","End":"01:42.755","Text":"and proteins, and it\u0027s turned into carbon dioxide."},{"Start":"01:42.755 ","End":"01:45.320","Text":"This can be a product, where in essence,"},{"Start":"01:45.320 ","End":"01:49.024","Text":"it\u0027s probably even waste that needs to be eliminated."},{"Start":"01:49.024 ","End":"01:51.740","Text":"Now theoretically there are several alternatives to the cycle,"},{"Start":"01:51.740 ","End":"01:57.915","Text":"but this cycle appears to be the most efficient and found amongst acid or ROIC organisms."},{"Start":"01:57.915 ","End":"01:59.810","Text":"This brings us to metabolism,"},{"Start":"01:59.810 ","End":"02:02.630","Text":"the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in"},{"Start":"02:02.630 ","End":"02:05.330","Text":"order to maintain life, like the Krebs Cycle."},{"Start":"02:05.330 ","End":"02:09.020","Text":"These are things that are needed and are"},{"Start":"02:09.020 ","End":"02:13.700","Text":"made of several chemical processes and are termed metabolism."},{"Start":"02:13.700 ","End":"02:19.910","Text":"Alternatively, metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms."},{"Start":"02:19.910 ","End":"02:24.170","Text":"The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways in which"},{"Start":"02:24.170 ","End":"02:28.530","Text":"1 chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical."},{"Start":"02:28.530 ","End":"02:29.930","Text":"Again, you see this circle,"},{"Start":"02:29.930 ","End":"02:32.945","Text":"it\u0027s called a cycle because that is what is happening."},{"Start":"02:32.945 ","End":"02:35.930","Text":"Each step is facilitated by a specific enzyme."},{"Start":"02:35.930 ","End":"02:42.030","Text":"That specific enzyme will be A to point B with reactants turning into products."},{"Start":"02:42.030 ","End":"02:47.690","Text":"Then different enzyme will take products of B and make them its"},{"Start":"02:47.690 ","End":"02:54.604","Text":"reactants or substrates for its reaction and come out with product C, etc."},{"Start":"02:54.604 ","End":"02:57.050","Text":"Enzymes are crucial for metabolism and they enable"},{"Start":"02:57.050 ","End":"03:00.050","Text":"organisms to drive desirable reactions that require"},{"Start":"03:00.050 ","End":"03:02.810","Text":"energy that will not occur spontaneously by"},{"Start":"03:02.810 ","End":"03:06.660","Text":"coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy."},{"Start":"03:06.660 ","End":"03:10.450","Text":"They\u0027ll take a reaction that releases energy,"},{"Start":"03:10.450 ","End":"03:16.775","Text":"then this energy will be used in reaction B that requires energy."},{"Start":"03:16.775 ","End":"03:23.425","Text":"The enzyme coupling this together allows for these to occur."},{"Start":"03:23.425 ","End":"03:27.650","Text":"It enables the reactions to occur."},{"Start":"03:27.650 ","End":"03:29.210","Text":"Enzymes act as catalysts."},{"Start":"03:29.210 ","End":"03:34.670","Text":"They allow a reaction to proceed more rapidly by reducing the activation energy and"},{"Start":"03:34.670 ","End":"03:40.220","Text":"therefore reactions that otherwise wouldn\u0027t occur,"},{"Start":"03:40.220 ","End":"03:43.190","Text":"not spontaneously or over years,"},{"Start":"03:43.190 ","End":"03:45.775","Text":"can occur in a rapid state."},{"Start":"03:45.775 ","End":"03:53.615","Text":"An enzyme will come and will lower the activation energy, the activation barrier."},{"Start":"03:53.615 ","End":"03:55.864","Text":"Therefore, once it\u0027s lower,"},{"Start":"03:55.864 ","End":"03:59.600","Text":"you can see that products form at"},{"Start":"03:59.600 ","End":"04:04.415","Text":"an earlier time on the x-axis of the products of the reaction."},{"Start":"04:04.415 ","End":"04:05.846","Text":"If this is, let\u0027s say,"},{"Start":"04:05.846 ","End":"04:06.920","Text":"1 second, 2 second,"},{"Start":"04:06.920 ","End":"04:08.801","Text":"3, 4, 5,"},{"Start":"04:08.801 ","End":"04:10.865","Text":"6, 7, 8."},{"Start":"04:10.865 ","End":"04:13.100","Text":"Here, just an example."},{"Start":"04:13.100 ","End":"04:14.390","Text":"This is femtoseconds."},{"Start":"04:14.390 ","End":"04:17.270","Text":"It\u0027s not really like this. This happens at 5 seconds,"},{"Start":"04:17.270 ","End":"04:20.945","Text":"this happens at almost close to 6 seconds."},{"Start":"04:20.945 ","End":"04:25.430","Text":"It reduces the activation energy and therefore the rate"},{"Start":"04:25.430 ","End":"04:29.330","Text":"of the reaction is faster, it increases."},{"Start":"04:29.330 ","End":"04:33.590","Text":"They also allow the regulation of the rate of a metabolic reaction just by how we said,"},{"Start":"04:33.590 ","End":"04:35.510","Text":"for example, in response to changes in"},{"Start":"04:35.510 ","End":"04:38.605","Text":"the cell\u0027s environment or to signals from other cells."},{"Start":"04:38.605 ","End":"04:44.720","Text":"It actually regulate such a rate if there are a lot of reactants in the cell and"},{"Start":"04:44.720 ","End":"04:51.440","Text":"the conditions are such that an enzyme is ready to proceed with a reaction,"},{"Start":"04:51.440 ","End":"04:54.410","Text":"then that reaction can happen fast."},{"Start":"04:54.410 ","End":"04:57.050","Text":"If there is lower amount of reactants,"},{"Start":"04:57.050 ","End":"04:58.775","Text":"the conditions aren\u0027t ideal,"},{"Start":"04:58.775 ","End":"05:03.800","Text":"the enzyme will still possibly be able to go through with the reaction,"},{"Start":"05:03.800 ","End":"05:06.770","Text":"but you\u0027ll have less product and it will take longer in general,"},{"Start":"05:06.770 ","End":"05:10.570","Text":"if you have a certain amount that you need for the metabolic pathway to occur."},{"Start":"05:10.570 ","End":"05:13.070","Text":"The 3 main purposes of metabolism are,"},{"Start":"05:13.070 ","End":"05:16.760","Text":"the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes."},{"Start":"05:16.760 ","End":"05:19.025","Text":"The first thing is taking food,"},{"Start":"05:19.025 ","End":"05:20.705","Text":"turning it into energy."},{"Start":"05:20.705 ","End":"05:24.230","Text":"The processes in the cell can occur,"},{"Start":"05:24.230 ","End":"05:27.425","Text":"2 the conversion of food or fuel,"},{"Start":"05:27.425 ","End":"05:29.930","Text":"this energy to building blocks of proteins,"},{"Start":"05:29.930 ","End":"05:32.725","Text":"lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates."},{"Start":"05:32.725 ","End":"05:37.415","Text":"Taking this and converting it to the building blocks,"},{"Start":"05:37.415 ","End":"05:41.360","Text":"amino acids, nucleotides, fatty acids, etc."},{"Start":"05:41.360 ","End":"05:46.130","Text":"3 is the elimination of metabolic wastes."},{"Start":"05:46.130 ","End":"05:49.595","Text":"If we\u0027re thinking about food,"},{"Start":"05:49.595 ","End":"05:54.335","Text":"we just ate a meal and we now want to go running."},{"Start":"05:54.335 ","End":"05:57.785","Text":"Our cells will need to break down this food,"},{"Start":"05:57.785 ","End":"06:02.715","Text":"these larger molecules in the release in this breakdown,"},{"Start":"06:02.715 ","End":"06:05.765","Text":"in this catabolism, you will have smaller molecules,"},{"Start":"06:05.765 ","End":"06:09.635","Text":"sugars that can be used as fuel."},{"Start":"06:09.635 ","End":"06:12.290","Text":"Energy and ATP is released."},{"Start":"06:12.290 ","End":"06:16.100","Text":"You both have the building blocks being"},{"Start":"06:16.100 ","End":"06:20.570","Text":"made and energy that\u0027s released to do the functions."},{"Start":"06:20.570 ","End":"06:27.095","Text":"If we need to make larger molecules to compose things that are important for function,"},{"Start":"06:27.095 ","End":"06:30.500","Text":"it will then go through the process with"},{"Start":"06:30.500 ","End":"06:36.185","Text":"the ATP and create these larger biomolecules and release heat."},{"Start":"06:36.185 ","End":"06:39.095","Text":"Aside from that, in this breakdown,"},{"Start":"06:39.095 ","End":"06:41.209","Text":"when you have waste,"},{"Start":"06:41.209 ","End":"06:43.360","Text":"it will be eliminated."},{"Start":"06:43.360 ","End":"06:48.305","Text":"Metabolic waste from these processes is eliminated."},{"Start":"06:48.305 ","End":"06:51.905","Text":"These enzymes catalyze reactions allow organisms to grow and reproduce,"},{"Start":"06:51.905 ","End":"06:54.875","Text":"maintain their structures, and respond to their environment."},{"Start":"06:54.875 ","End":"06:57.140","Text":"The word metabolism can also refer to the sum of"},{"Start":"06:57.140 ","End":"07:00.035","Text":"all chemical reactions that occur in living organisms,"},{"Start":"07:00.035 ","End":"07:05.345","Text":"including digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells,"},{"Start":"07:05.345 ","End":"07:09.410","Text":"in which case the above described set of reactions within the cell is called"},{"Start":"07:09.410 ","End":"07:13.700","Text":"intermediary metabolism or intermediate metabolism."},{"Start":"07:13.700 ","End":"07:17.105","Text":"In various diseases such as Type 2 diabetes,"},{"Start":"07:17.105 ","End":"07:18.935","Text":"metabolic syndrome, and cancer,"},{"Start":"07:18.935 ","End":"07:20.920","Text":"normal metabolism is disrupted."},{"Start":"07:20.920 ","End":"07:24.530","Text":"In diabetes there is an issue with basically sugar, glucose,"},{"Start":"07:24.530 ","End":"07:28.935","Text":"whatever going from the blood into the cells."},{"Start":"07:28.935 ","End":"07:32.840","Text":"If it has a problem entering the cells and the cells don\u0027t have"},{"Start":"07:32.840 ","End":"07:38.489","Text":"this glucose or this chemical fuel to function and therefore it can\u0027t function,"},{"Start":"07:38.489 ","End":"07:43.685","Text":"so you will feel fatigue or normal functioning is affected and not occurring."},{"Start":"07:43.685 ","End":"07:46.955","Text":"Therefore, metabolism is very crucial and"},{"Start":"07:46.955 ","End":"07:53.290","Text":"any discrepancy from normal metabolism can result in disease."},{"Start":"07:53.290 ","End":"07:57.965","Text":"With this, we completed Part 1 of metabolism and enzymatic pathways."},{"Start":"07:57.965 ","End":"07:59.930","Text":"We should be able to define metabolism,"},{"Start":"07:59.930 ","End":"08:02.188","Text":"describe the 2 major types of metabolic pathways,"},{"Start":"08:02.188 ","End":"08:04.895","Text":"and discuss how enzymes play a role in metabolism."},{"Start":"08:04.895 ","End":"08:08.550","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to Part 2."}],"ID":27063},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Metabolism - Enzymatic Pathway part 2","Duration":"6m 30s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26147,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:01.980","Text":"Hey there. We\u0027re back."},{"Start":"00:01.980 ","End":"00:06.450","Text":"Physical Foundation covering Part 2 of Metabolism and Enzymatic Pathways."},{"Start":"00:06.450 ","End":"00:09.760","Text":"By the end of this section you should specifically be able to define metabolism,"},{"Start":"00:09.760 ","End":"00:12.160","Text":"describe the 2 major types of metabolic pathways,"},{"Start":"00:12.160 ","End":"00:14.665","Text":"and discuss how enzymes play a role in metabolism."},{"Start":"00:14.665 ","End":"00:18.040","Text":"Let\u0027s go back and talk about anabolic and catabolic pathways."},{"Start":"00:18.040 ","End":"00:19.615","Text":"We mentioned these terms before,"},{"Start":"00:19.615 ","End":"00:23.085","Text":"and we\u0027ll break them down further now."},{"Start":"00:23.085 ","End":"00:27.250","Text":"Some pathways degrade organic nutrients into simple end products in order"},{"Start":"00:27.250 ","End":"00:31.720","Text":"to extract chemical energy and convert it into a form that can be used by the cell."},{"Start":"00:31.720 ","End":"00:33.545","Text":"We take organic nutrients."},{"Start":"00:33.545 ","End":"00:37.380","Text":"Us humans, we said we are chemoheterotrophs,"},{"Start":"00:37.380 ","End":"00:40.530","Text":"we need to ingest carbon-based nutrients,"},{"Start":"00:40.530 ","End":"00:42.839","Text":"organic nutrients, eat them,"},{"Start":"00:42.839 ","End":"00:47.750","Text":"and then these can be broken up in a pathway into the simple end-products into"},{"Start":"00:47.750 ","End":"00:53.170","Text":"the smaller components of this organic nutrient."},{"Start":"00:53.170 ","End":"00:57.920","Text":"This results in a release of chemical energy that can"},{"Start":"00:57.920 ","End":"01:03.245","Text":"then be used up by the cell for specific reactions and functions."},{"Start":"01:03.245 ","End":"01:08.570","Text":"These degradative free energy-yielding reactions are designated catabolism."},{"Start":"01:08.570 ","End":"01:10.290","Text":"This is a term we\u0027ve introduced before."},{"Start":"01:10.290 ","End":"01:14.090","Text":"When we are taking larger molecules or biomolecules and breaking them down into"},{"Start":"01:14.090 ","End":"01:18.779","Text":"smaller molecules and ATP is released as well as heat, this is energy."},{"Start":"01:18.779 ","End":"01:24.710","Text":"Waste is eliminated, that is called catabolism."},{"Start":"01:24.710 ","End":"01:29.300","Text":"The energy released by these reactions drive the synthesis of ATP so that"},{"Start":"01:29.300 ","End":"01:34.515","Text":"ATP cellular concentration is much higher than its equilibrium concentrations,"},{"Start":"01:34.515 ","End":"01:40.590","Text":"thus the Delta G for ATP breakdown is large and negative."},{"Start":"01:41.510 ","End":"01:45.470","Text":"You have a higher cellular ATP concentration than"},{"Start":"01:45.470 ","End":"01:52.385","Text":"its equilibrium concentration and thus Delta G for this breakdown is large and negative."},{"Start":"01:52.385 ","End":"01:56.840","Text":"This means it results in its spontaneous occurrence,"},{"Start":"01:56.840 ","End":"01:59.810","Text":"resulting in the energy for the cell to do work."},{"Start":"01:59.810 ","End":"02:02.090","Text":"When we have Delta G that\u0027s negative,"},{"Start":"02:02.090 ","End":"02:05.480","Text":"exogenic reaction, you have spontaneous,"},{"Start":"02:05.480 ","End":"02:13.825","Text":"therefore having this breakdown higher concentrations of ATP,"},{"Start":"02:13.825 ","End":"02:16.900","Text":"equilibrium concentrations are lower for"},{"Start":"02:16.900 ","End":"02:21.310","Text":"the Delta G for this breakdown is large and it\u0027s negative,"},{"Start":"02:21.310 ","End":"02:27.565","Text":"so it can occur spontaneously resulting in energy for the cell to do work."},{"Start":"02:27.565 ","End":"02:32.800","Text":"Similarly, catabolism results in the production of the reduced electron carriers, NADPH."},{"Start":"02:32.800 ","End":"02:35.875","Text":"We saw that in the Krebs cycle illustration,"},{"Start":"02:35.875 ","End":"02:38.290","Text":"both of which can donate electrons and"},{"Start":"02:38.290 ","End":"02:41.250","Text":"processes that generate ATP or drive inductive steps."},{"Start":"02:41.250 ","End":"02:43.000","Text":"Remember oxidation and reduction,"},{"Start":"02:43.000 ","End":"02:46.915","Text":"reductive steps in biosynthetic pathways."},{"Start":"02:46.915 ","End":"02:50.600","Text":"It\u0027s something that results in"},{"Start":"02:50.600 ","End":"02:55.580","Text":"energy and allows for other biosynthetic pathways to occur."},{"Start":"02:55.580 ","End":"02:57.110","Text":"Other pathways start with"},{"Start":"02:57.110 ","End":"03:02.030","Text":"the small precursor molecules and convert them to larger and more complex molecules,"},{"Start":"03:02.030 ","End":"03:05.000","Text":"including proteins and nucleic acids."},{"Start":"03:05.000 ","End":"03:08.879","Text":"If you remember, what should jump into your head in metabolism?"},{"Start":"03:08.879 ","End":"03:12.470","Text":"We have catabolism and anabolism."},{"Start":"03:12.470 ","End":"03:13.940","Text":"These synthetic pathways,"},{"Start":"03:13.940 ","End":"03:15.650","Text":"which require the input of energy,"},{"Start":"03:15.650 ","End":"03:17.690","Text":"are termed anabolism,"},{"Start":"03:17.690 ","End":"03:22.264","Text":"taking smaller molecules, the investment of energy,"},{"Start":"03:22.264 ","End":"03:27.140","Text":"ATP, and creating the larger molecules,"},{"Start":"03:27.140 ","End":"03:30.170","Text":"the biomolecules, the more complex molecules;"},{"Start":"03:30.170 ","End":"03:34.110","Text":"proteins, nucleic acids, etc."},{"Start":"03:34.480 ","End":"03:38.600","Text":"The overall network of enzyme catalyzed pathways,"},{"Start":"03:38.600 ","End":"03:45.250","Text":"including catabolic and anabolic comprises cellular metabolism."},{"Start":"03:45.250 ","End":"03:51.290","Text":"Putting this together, metabolic reactions may be categorized as anabolic pathways;"},{"Start":"03:51.290 ","End":"03:54.020","Text":"synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones,"},{"Start":"03:54.020 ","End":"03:55.550","Text":"and this requires energy input."},{"Start":"03:55.550 ","End":"03:56.870","Text":"Remember we just covered this."},{"Start":"03:56.870 ","End":"03:59.945","Text":"Anabolic pathways requires energy."},{"Start":"03:59.945 ","End":"04:03.410","Text":"Then we have catabolic pathways which these degrade"},{"Start":"04:03.410 ","End":"04:07.700","Text":"complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy output."},{"Start":"04:07.700 ","End":"04:12.864","Text":"You have the breakdown upon those 2 monomers and energy is released."},{"Start":"04:12.864 ","End":"04:14.355","Text":"Again, putting this together."},{"Start":"04:14.355 ","End":"04:16.910","Text":"Catabolic is the breaking down of compounds, for example,"},{"Start":"04:16.910 ","End":"04:21.510","Text":"the breaking down of glucose to pyruvate by cellular respiration or anabolic,"},{"Start":"04:21.510 ","End":"04:24.230","Text":"the building up synthesis of compounds such as proteins,"},{"Start":"04:24.230 ","End":"04:25.910","Text":"carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids."},{"Start":"04:25.910 ","End":"04:30.360","Text":"Usually, catabolism releases energy and anabolism consumes energy."},{"Start":"04:30.360 ","End":"04:33.365","Text":"Now metabolism, metabolic pathways,"},{"Start":"04:33.365 ","End":"04:37.010","Text":"enzymes facilitate the chemical reactions and they catalyze"},{"Start":"04:37.010 ","End":"04:41.170","Text":"biological reactions that require energy as well as those that release energy."},{"Start":"04:41.170 ","End":"04:43.710","Text":"The pathways that act on the main components of cells,"},{"Start":"04:43.710 ","End":"04:45.080","Text":"proteins, fats, sugars,"},{"Start":"04:45.080 ","End":"04:50.360","Text":"and nucleic acids are essentially identical and all living organisms."},{"Start":"04:50.360 ","End":"04:55.745","Text":"This cell activity occurs through stepwise biochemical reactions,"},{"Start":"04:55.745 ","End":"04:59.645","Text":"and is similar in the vast array of different organisms."},{"Start":"04:59.645 ","End":"05:02.245","Text":"Some reactants are spontaneous and release energy,"},{"Start":"05:02.245 ","End":"05:04.675","Text":"others require energy to proceed,"},{"Start":"05:04.675 ","End":"05:08.510","Text":"and cells must continuously produce more energy to refill"},{"Start":"05:08.510 ","End":"05:13.400","Text":"the already used energy in order to keep these processes going."},{"Start":"05:13.400 ","End":"05:18.200","Text":"Referring to metabolic reactions and the different categorizations of these,"},{"Start":"05:18.200 ","End":"05:19.745","Text":"you have anabolic pathways,"},{"Start":"05:19.745 ","End":"05:22.675","Text":"this is synthesizing complex biomolecules,"},{"Start":"05:22.675 ","End":"05:26.013","Text":"catabolic pathways catabolism releases energy,"},{"Start":"05:26.013 ","End":"05:33.325","Text":"and metabolism is consistent of both of these which are facilitated by enzymes,"},{"Start":"05:33.325 ","End":"05:38.770","Text":"and there is the need for energy to"},{"Start":"05:38.770 ","End":"05:44.965","Text":"be provided for this to continue in the cell to be viable and function."},{"Start":"05:44.965 ","End":"05:53.265","Text":"We\u0027re looking here, you have complex macromolecules, simple macromolecules."},{"Start":"05:53.265 ","End":"05:56.706","Text":"The breakdown is catabolism and heat."},{"Start":"05:56.706 ","End":"06:03.400","Text":"Energy is released as well as energy in the form of ATP which is then used in anabolism"},{"Start":"06:03.400 ","End":"06:11.405","Text":"invested into the building of complex biomolecules like proteins,"},{"Start":"06:11.405 ","End":"06:17.845","Text":"RNA, DNA, which are nucleotides, etc."},{"Start":"06:17.845 ","End":"06:24.110","Text":"With this, we\u0027ve completed Part 2 and we should be able to define metabolism,"},{"Start":"06:24.110 ","End":"06:25.970","Text":"describe the 2 major types of metabolic pathways,"},{"Start":"06:25.970 ","End":"06:29.120","Text":"and discuss how enzymes play a role in metabolism."},{"Start":"06:29.120 ","End":"06:31.440","Text":"See you in the exercises."}],"ID":27064},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 28","Duration":"34s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26140,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.130","Text":"Welcome. We are in an exercise,"},{"Start":"00:02.130 ","End":"00:06.525","Text":"testing our knowledge of metabolism and enzymatic pathways."},{"Start":"00:06.525 ","End":"00:08.745","Text":"How would you define metabolism?"},{"Start":"00:08.745 ","End":"00:11.460","Text":"Metabolism can be defined as the chemical processes that"},{"Start":"00:11.460 ","End":"00:14.655","Text":"occur within a living organism in order to maintain life."},{"Start":"00:14.655 ","End":"00:19.559","Text":"Alternatively, metabolism is the set of life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms."},{"Start":"00:19.559 ","End":"00:23.114","Text":"We also know the metabolism can consist of catabolism,"},{"Start":"00:23.114 ","End":"00:26.780","Text":"the breakdown of larger biomolecules and release of energy,"},{"Start":"00:26.780 ","End":"00:29.625","Text":"or anabolism, the building of"},{"Start":"00:29.625 ","End":"00:35.680","Text":"larger molecules which requires energy investment. Let\u0027s move on."}],"ID":27065},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 29","Duration":"1m 26s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26141,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.510","Text":"Hi. We\u0027re going to do an exercise in the section"},{"Start":"00:03.510 ","End":"00:07.785","Text":"Metabolism and Enzymatic Pathways within Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.785 ","End":"00:10.260","Text":"What are the 3 main roles of metabolism?"},{"Start":"00:10.260 ","End":"00:16.230","Text":"1, the conversion of food to energy to run cellular processes."},{"Start":"00:16.230 ","End":"00:17.730","Text":"We consume food."},{"Start":"00:17.730 ","End":"00:22.655","Text":"This needs to be converted to energy that can be utilized to run cellular processes,"},{"Start":"00:22.655 ","End":"00:25.695","Text":"so that is a very important role of metabolism."},{"Start":"00:25.695 ","End":"00:32.270","Text":"2, the conversion of food or fuel energy to building blocks for proteins."},{"Start":"00:32.270 ","End":"00:36.950","Text":"Taking energy that was converted from food,"},{"Start":"00:36.950 ","End":"00:39.485","Text":"or considering the food itself,"},{"Start":"00:39.485 ","End":"00:43.700","Text":"to make building blocks for proteins,"},{"Start":"00:43.700 ","End":"00:46.130","Text":"lipids, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates."},{"Start":"00:46.130 ","End":"00:51.157","Text":"3, the elimination of metabolic wastes,"},{"Start":"00:51.157 ","End":"00:53.420","Text":"so taking larger molecules,"},{"Start":"00:53.420 ","End":"00:54.880","Text":"breaking them down foods,"},{"Start":"00:54.880 ","End":"00:58.595","Text":"so that we have smaller molecules and energy that we can then"},{"Start":"00:58.595 ","End":"01:03.095","Text":"invest to build up our proteins and lipids, etc."},{"Start":"01:03.095 ","End":"01:05.330","Text":"So we have these 2,"},{"Start":"01:05.330 ","End":"01:11.800","Text":"and we need to eliminate the waste that form during metabolism."},{"Start":"01:11.800 ","End":"01:14.000","Text":"So the 3 main roles of metabolism is conversion"},{"Start":"01:14.000 ","End":"01:16.070","Text":"of food to energy to run cellular processes,"},{"Start":"01:16.070 ","End":"01:20.480","Text":"conversion of food or fuel energy to building blocks for proteins,"},{"Start":"01:20.480 ","End":"01:21.980","Text":"lipids, nucleic acids, etc,"},{"Start":"01:21.980 ","End":"01:24.500","Text":"and the elimination of metabolic wastes."},{"Start":"01:24.500 ","End":"01:27.479","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to the next exercise."}],"ID":27066},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 30","Duration":"1m 17s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26142,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.810","Text":"You\u0027re here testing your knowledge on"},{"Start":"00:03.810 ","End":"00:08.160","Text":"metabolism and enzymatic pathway in Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:08.160 ","End":"00:11.445","Text":"List the the 2 major types of metabolism and define them."},{"Start":"00:11.445 ","End":"00:13.740","Text":"This should totally be a piece of cake for"},{"Start":"00:13.740 ","End":"00:16.170","Text":"you guys because we covered this in previous sections,"},{"Start":"00:16.170 ","End":"00:18.435","Text":"and we just drilled it in some more."},{"Start":"00:18.435 ","End":"00:21.179","Text":"But if it\u0027s not easy, that\u0027s okay."},{"Start":"00:21.179 ","End":"00:22.770","Text":"You can go through the lessons again,"},{"Start":"00:22.770 ","End":"00:25.785","Text":"and it will become easy or just go through this exercise."},{"Start":"00:25.785 ","End":"00:30.390","Text":"The answer is anabolic pathways and catabolic pathways."},{"Start":"00:30.390 ","End":"00:33.390","Text":"Reminding, catabolism is the breakdown"},{"Start":"00:33.390 ","End":"00:37.470","Text":"of larger biomolecules to smaller biomolecules and releases energy,"},{"Start":"00:37.470 ","End":"00:40.980","Text":"and anabolism is putting them together."},{"Start":"00:40.980 ","End":"00:42.840","Text":"Anabolic pathways,"},{"Start":"00:42.840 ","End":"00:47.660","Text":"these synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones and require energy input."},{"Start":"00:47.660 ","End":"00:49.040","Text":"So simpler ones, in this case,"},{"Start":"00:49.040 ","End":"00:50.300","Text":"we\u0027re seeing monomers here,"},{"Start":"00:50.300 ","End":"00:52.760","Text":"and energy input is ATP."},{"Start":"00:52.760 ","End":"00:54.290","Text":"So anabolism is this,"},{"Start":"00:54.290 ","End":"00:58.295","Text":"and it creates this more complex polymer."},{"Start":"00:58.295 ","End":"01:06.020","Text":"Catabolic pathways degrade complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy."},{"Start":"01:06.020 ","End":"01:08.180","Text":"You have the heat that is released as energy,"},{"Start":"01:08.180 ","End":"01:13.547","Text":"and you have ATP that can be utilized by the cell to do other reactions,"},{"Start":"01:13.547 ","End":"01:15.379","Text":"so you have energy outputs."},{"Start":"01:15.379 ","End":"01:18.600","Text":"That\u0027s it folks."}],"ID":27067},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 31","Duration":"2m 1s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26143,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.720 ","End":"00:04.360","Text":"We are here doing an exercise on"},{"Start":"00:04.360 ","End":"00:07.330","Text":"metabolism and enzymatic pathways in Physical Foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.330 ","End":"00:10.360","Text":"How do enzymes contribute to metabolism?"},{"Start":"00:10.360 ","End":"00:12.564","Text":"Enzymes are crucial to metabolism."},{"Start":"00:12.564 ","End":"00:16.600","Text":"They enable organisms to complete reactions that require energy that will not"},{"Start":"00:16.600 ","End":"00:21.730","Text":"occur spontaneously by coupling them to spontaneous reactions that release energy."},{"Start":"00:21.730 ","End":"00:25.360","Text":"So we know they\u0027re crucial to metabolism,"},{"Start":"00:25.360 ","End":"00:28.120","Text":"and we know that metabolism is crucial for cell functioning,"},{"Start":"00:28.120 ","End":"00:33.295","Text":"and they enable organisms to complete reactions that are very important,"},{"Start":"00:33.295 ","End":"00:38.864","Text":"even if they require energy to go through and otherwise would not occur spontaneously,"},{"Start":"00:38.864 ","End":"00:40.510","Text":"and they do this by coupling"},{"Start":"00:40.510 ","End":"00:44.480","Text":"spontaneous reactions that release energy with the reactions that require energy."},{"Start":"00:44.480 ","End":"00:47.150","Text":"Enzymes act as catalysts in the metabolic pathways,"},{"Start":"00:47.150 ","End":"00:49.310","Text":"and they allow reaction to proceed more rapidly."},{"Start":"00:49.310 ","End":"00:53.510","Text":"Remember, this has to do with lowering the activation energy."},{"Start":"00:53.510 ","End":"00:56.420","Text":"I\u0027m mixing up terms and things that we learned in"},{"Start":"00:56.420 ","End":"00:59.495","Text":"previous lessons to make sure everything\u0027s connected."},{"Start":"00:59.495 ","End":"01:03.515","Text":"They also allow the regulation at the rate of a metabolic reaction,"},{"Start":"01:03.515 ","End":"01:06.650","Text":"and this they do by either"},{"Start":"01:06.650 ","End":"01:12.305","Text":"having the reaction go through or not depending on the conditions in the cell."},{"Start":"01:12.305 ","End":"01:14.900","Text":"By having a specific enzyme,"},{"Start":"01:14.900 ","End":"01:18.005","Text":"and a specific substrate,"},{"Start":"01:18.005 ","End":"01:21.275","Text":"what will occur is that,"},{"Start":"01:21.275 ","End":"01:23.000","Text":"in the correct conditions,"},{"Start":"01:23.000 ","End":"01:24.920","Text":"these will come together."},{"Start":"01:24.920 ","End":"01:27.259","Text":"You\u0027ll have an enzyme substrate complex,"},{"Start":"01:27.259 ","End":"01:30.590","Text":"and then you will have the products"},{"Start":"01:30.590 ","End":"01:35.210","Text":"released and the enzyme released to repeat this process."},{"Start":"01:35.210 ","End":"01:36.695","Text":"For this to occur,"},{"Start":"01:36.695 ","End":"01:38.480","Text":"you need the substrate,"},{"Start":"01:38.480 ","End":"01:43.190","Text":"and you need the conditions in the cell to be appropriate for"},{"Start":"01:43.190 ","End":"01:45.620","Text":"the enzyme and the substrate to come together"},{"Start":"01:45.620 ","End":"01:48.260","Text":"to form this complex and for the reaction to take place."},{"Start":"01:48.260 ","End":"01:53.030","Text":"Therefore, this only occurs in certain conditions and that is"},{"Start":"01:53.030 ","End":"01:59.120","Text":"how the enzymes can help regulate metabolic reactions and their rate."},{"Start":"01:59.120 ","End":"02:02.129","Text":"We are ready for another exercise."}],"ID":27068},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 32","Duration":"3m 38s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26144,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.095","Text":"We are testing our knowledge on metabolism and enzymatic pathways."},{"Start":"00:04.095 ","End":"00:06.839","Text":"Select the proper one to complete the statement."},{"Start":"00:06.839 ","End":"00:09.810","Text":"The pathways that act on the main components of cells,"},{"Start":"00:09.810 ","End":"00:11.220","Text":"such as proteins, fats,"},{"Start":"00:11.220 ","End":"00:12.750","Text":"sugars, and nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"00:12.750 ","End":"00:20.430","Text":"are essentially identical and all living organisms in that: A,"},{"Start":"00:20.430 ","End":"00:24.775","Text":"this activity occurs through stepwise biochemical reactions; B,"},{"Start":"00:24.775 ","End":"00:27.170","Text":"some of the reactions in these pathways are spontaneous and"},{"Start":"00:27.170 ","End":"00:29.905","Text":"release energy while others require energy to proceed;"},{"Start":"00:29.905 ","End":"00:34.355","Text":"C, they require the continuous production of energy to refill the energy being used."},{"Start":"00:34.355 ","End":"00:35.840","Text":"All of the above is correct."},{"Start":"00:35.840 ","End":"00:37.820","Text":"So let\u0027s go over the sentence again,"},{"Start":"00:37.820 ","End":"00:41.480","Text":"\"The pathways that act on the main components of cells such as proteins, fats,"},{"Start":"00:41.480 ","End":"00:45.935","Text":"sugars, and nucleic acids are essentially identical in all living organisms in that\"."},{"Start":"00:45.935 ","End":"00:50.615","Text":"In essence, we mentioned Krebs cycle and metabolism,"},{"Start":"00:50.615 ","End":"00:55.370","Text":"that these are in common for most living organisms."},{"Start":"00:55.370 ","End":"00:57.305","Text":"So what do we know about metabolism?"},{"Start":"00:57.305 ","End":"01:02.780","Text":"First off, this activity occurs through stepwise biochemical reactions."},{"Start":"01:02.780 ","End":"01:05.990","Text":"That sounds true to us when we talked about catabolism, and anabolism,"},{"Start":"01:05.990 ","End":"01:14.360","Text":"and how enzymes and the reactions they are catalyzing come together in a continuous,"},{"Start":"01:14.360 ","End":"01:18.680","Text":"sequential stepwise fashion where"},{"Start":"01:18.680 ","End":"01:21.340","Text":"the products of one becomes the reactants of the other,"},{"Start":"01:21.340 ","End":"01:23.167","Text":"and this is a pathway."},{"Start":"01:23.167 ","End":"01:26.705","Text":"The metabolic pathway is an example of this."},{"Start":"01:26.705 ","End":"01:29.375","Text":"This seems it\u0027s true."},{"Start":"01:29.375 ","End":"01:33.940","Text":"Therefore, this can be an option."},{"Start":"01:33.940 ","End":"01:39.364","Text":"B, some of the reactions in these pathways are spontaneous and release energy,"},{"Start":"01:39.364 ","End":"01:41.450","Text":"while others require energy to proceed."},{"Start":"01:41.450 ","End":"01:44.045","Text":"So again, thinking of metabolism,"},{"Start":"01:44.045 ","End":"01:47.520","Text":"we define 2 functions."},{"Start":"01:47.520 ","End":"01:51.780","Text":"We have anabolism and catabolism."},{"Start":"01:51.780 ","End":"01:58.010","Text":"While anabolism is building up complex biomolecules,"},{"Start":"01:58.010 ","End":"02:05.313","Text":"while catabolism is breaking them down into simple biomolecules,"},{"Start":"02:05.313 ","End":"02:07.325","Text":"and we said for the anabolism to occur,"},{"Start":"02:07.325 ","End":"02:13.865","Text":"energy needs to be invested while catabolism results in the release of energy."},{"Start":"02:13.865 ","End":"02:19.940","Text":"Some of the reaction in these pathways are spontaneous and release energy,"},{"Start":"02:19.940 ","End":"02:23.210","Text":"while others require energy to proceed is true."},{"Start":"02:23.210 ","End":"02:26.330","Text":"Now we have 2 statements that seem to be true,"},{"Start":"02:26.330 ","End":"02:27.575","Text":"and we\u0027ll have to refine."},{"Start":"02:27.575 ","End":"02:31.160","Text":"Let\u0027s check C. The pathways"},{"Start":"02:31.160 ","End":"02:35.555","Text":"require the continuous production of energy to refill the energy being used."},{"Start":"02:35.555 ","End":"02:37.850","Text":"But we closed up our lesson with that."},{"Start":"02:37.850 ","End":"02:44.360","Text":"There\u0027s constant need of energy to be produced and consumed by heterotrophs,"},{"Start":"02:44.360 ","End":"02:50.555","Text":"for example, by form of food ingestion to refill the energy that\u0027s being used."},{"Start":"02:50.555 ","End":"02:57.440","Text":"It is also produced by breaking down biomolecules in the cell like catabolism."},{"Start":"02:57.440 ","End":"02:58.925","Text":"This is also true."},{"Start":"02:58.925 ","End":"03:03.530","Text":"Therefore, choosing just 1 of them would be incorrect when we have the option of,"},{"Start":"03:03.530 ","End":"03:04.790","Text":"all of the above is correct."},{"Start":"03:04.790 ","End":"03:07.640","Text":"This is correct, this is correct, this is correct,"},{"Start":"03:07.640 ","End":"03:13.570","Text":"and that leaves us with D being the correct answer."},{"Start":"03:13.810 ","End":"03:17.840","Text":"There you have it. The pathways that act on the main components of cells,"},{"Start":"03:17.840 ","End":"03:19.760","Text":"such as proteins, fats, sugars, and nucleic acids,"},{"Start":"03:19.760 ","End":"03:22.100","Text":"are essentially identical in all living organisms in that"},{"Start":"03:22.100 ","End":"03:25.640","Text":"they occur through a stepwise biochemical reaction."},{"Start":"03:25.640 ","End":"03:30.485","Text":"They have some that release energy and some that require energy,"},{"Start":"03:30.485 ","End":"03:33.950","Text":"and they continuously need production and"},{"Start":"03:33.950 ","End":"03:39.180","Text":"just enough energy to refill the energy being used. There you have it."}],"ID":27069},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 33","Duration":"2m 33s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26145,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250139,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.805","Text":"We are within Physical Foundation,"},{"Start":"00:02.805 ","End":"00:07.095","Text":"and we have an exercise covering metabolism and enzymatic pathways."},{"Start":"00:07.095 ","End":"00:08.490","Text":"Part 1."},{"Start":"00:08.490 ","End":"00:11.370","Text":"What can you explain about how the many thousands of"},{"Start":"00:11.370 ","End":"00:14.691","Text":"enzyme-catalyzed reactions in cells are organized?"},{"Start":"00:14.691 ","End":"00:16.545","Text":"Just talked about this."},{"Start":"00:16.545 ","End":"00:19.950","Text":"The enzyme-catalyzed reactions in cells are functionally"},{"Start":"00:19.950 ","End":"00:23.728","Text":"organized into many sequences of consecutive reactions,"},{"Start":"00:23.728 ","End":"00:27.720","Text":"pathways, in which the product of 1 reaction becomes the reactant in the next."},{"Start":"00:27.720 ","End":"00:31.460","Text":"The pathways that act on the main components of cells, proteins, fats, sugars,"},{"Start":"00:31.460 ","End":"00:37.053","Text":"and nucleic acids are essentially identical in all living organisms."},{"Start":"00:37.053 ","End":"00:39.110","Text":"So what we can say about"},{"Start":"00:39.110 ","End":"00:42.290","Text":"these many enzyme-catalyzed reactions is that they\u0027re organized in"},{"Start":"00:42.290 ","End":"00:49.355","Text":"pathways and that these pathways are essentially the same in all living organisms."},{"Start":"00:49.355 ","End":"00:51.845","Text":"With the example of Krebs cycle,"},{"Start":"00:51.845 ","End":"00:57.050","Text":"aerobic respiration, it is the same in all aerobic organisms. Part 2."},{"Start":"00:57.050 ","End":"01:02.105","Text":"Describe the definitions: metabolism, catabolism, and anabolism."},{"Start":"01:02.105 ","End":"01:08.165","Text":"Metabolism, it is the overall network of enzyme-catalyzed pathways,"},{"Start":"01:08.165 ","End":"01:13.115","Text":"including catabolic and anabolic reactions."},{"Start":"01:13.115 ","End":"01:20.000","Text":"In its entirety, this is metabolism."},{"Start":"01:20.000 ","End":"01:22.790","Text":"Catabolism, specifically, is degradative."},{"Start":"01:22.790 ","End":"01:26.960","Text":"It is degrading and results in free energy."},{"Start":"01:26.960 ","End":"01:30.215","Text":"So it\u0027s degradative and free energy-yielding reactions."},{"Start":"01:30.215 ","End":"01:33.950","Text":"These are pathways that degrade organic nutrients into simple and products in"},{"Start":"01:33.950 ","End":"01:38.193","Text":"order to extract chemical energy and convert it into a form that can be used by the cell."},{"Start":"01:38.193 ","End":"01:42.575","Text":"So it\u0027s like taking proteins and breaking them down into amino acids."},{"Start":"01:42.575 ","End":"01:45.050","Text":"You see me sometimes just writing AA."},{"Start":"01:45.050 ","End":"01:51.489","Text":"This results in also release of ATP that can be used by the cell."},{"Start":"01:51.489 ","End":"01:56.020","Text":"Anabolism, this is synthetic pathways which require the input of energy"},{"Start":"01:56.020 ","End":"01:58.300","Text":"that start with the small precursor molecules and"},{"Start":"01:58.300 ","End":"02:00.685","Text":"convert them to larger and more complex molecules,"},{"Start":"02:00.685 ","End":"02:03.385","Text":"including proteins and nucleic acids."},{"Start":"02:03.385 ","End":"02:06.580","Text":"So anabolism requires the input of energy."},{"Start":"02:06.580 ","End":"02:09.838","Text":"You have metabolism, which is the overall network,"},{"Start":"02:09.838 ","End":"02:12.070","Text":"you have catabolism, which is degrading,"},{"Start":"02:12.070 ","End":"02:18.805","Text":"breaking down the larger complex biomolecules into simpler ones and releasing energy,"},{"Start":"02:18.805 ","End":"02:23.560","Text":"and anabolism defines the pathways that you need to input energy in order to"},{"Start":"02:23.560 ","End":"02:30.160","Text":"create large complex biomolecules necessary in the cells from the small precursors."},{"Start":"02:30.160 ","End":"02:32.485","Text":"That\u0027s it for this exercise."},{"Start":"02:32.485 ","End":"02:34.760","Text":"See you in the next section."}],"ID":27070}],"Thumbnail":null,"ID":250139},{"Name":"Genetic Foundation","TopicPlaylistFirstVideoID":0,"Duration":null,"Videos":[{"Watched":false,"Name":"Intro to Genetic Foundation","Duration":"9m 4s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26121,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.900","Text":"We are entering the exciting world of Genetic Foundation."},{"Start":"00:03.900 ","End":"00:09.195","Text":"In this section will introduce what we need to know with regard to genetic foundations."},{"Start":"00:09.195 ","End":"00:10.230","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:10.230 ","End":"00:14.955","Text":"you\u0027ll be able to state what maintains species continuity and species distinctions."},{"Start":"00:14.955 ","End":"00:19.185","Text":"Understand the significance of genetic material to biological species continuity,"},{"Start":"00:19.185 ","End":"00:20.910","Text":"list the key discoveries made with regard to"},{"Start":"00:20.910 ","End":"00:25.110","Text":"DNA 3 dimensional structure and appreciate the importance of the DNA sequence."},{"Start":"00:25.110 ","End":"00:29.280","Text":"Dive in, living cells and organisms are able"},{"Start":"00:29.280 ","End":"00:33.735","Text":"to reproduce themselves for countless generation with nearly perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"00:33.735 ","End":"00:36.795","Text":"If this is the first-generation and reproduces the second,"},{"Start":"00:36.795 ","End":"00:43.020","Text":"you have this being exactly the same as this and these are exactly the same as this,"},{"Start":"00:43.020 ","End":"00:46.175","Text":"so generations, you see this continuity."},{"Start":"00:46.175 ","End":"00:49.370","Text":"Now this is a remarkable property."},{"Start":"00:49.370 ","End":"00:53.300","Text":"This continuity of inherited traits implies constancy over"},{"Start":"00:53.300 ","End":"00:58.952","Text":"many generations in the structure of the molecules that contain the genetic information,"},{"Start":"00:58.952 ","End":"01:01.375","Text":"in humans case, the DNA."},{"Start":"01:01.375 ","End":"01:04.640","Text":"While records of historical civilizations have rarely and"},{"Start":"01:04.640 ","End":"01:07.580","Text":"barely survived for thousands of years."},{"Start":"01:07.580 ","End":"01:11.990","Text":"Even those that were carved in stone or etched on metal like copper,"},{"Start":"01:11.990 ","End":"01:16.730","Text":"genetic information in bones and other such remains as well as in living organisms,"},{"Start":"01:16.730 ","End":"01:22.265","Text":"have remained virtually unchanged over vastly greater periods."},{"Start":"01:22.265 ","End":"01:25.025","Text":"Many bacteria have nearly the same size,"},{"Start":"01:25.025 ","End":"01:29.285","Text":"shape and internal structures bacteria that lived almost 4 billion years ago."},{"Start":"01:29.285 ","End":"01:31.790","Text":"If we compare the prokaryotic structure that we went"},{"Start":"01:31.790 ","End":"01:34.925","Text":"over and studied in earlier sections they will be"},{"Start":"01:34.925 ","End":"01:42.120","Text":"similar or the same as what would have been found and seen almost 4 billion years ago."},{"Start":"01:42.120 ","End":"01:44.510","Text":"The chemical nature and 3 dimensional structure of"},{"Start":"01:44.510 ","End":"01:48.455","Text":"the genetic material DNA deoxyribonucleic acid"},{"Start":"01:48.455 ","End":"01:52.750","Text":"was one of the pivotal discoveries in biology in the 20th century."},{"Start":"01:52.750 ","End":"01:55.610","Text":"Scientist, Linus Pauling,"},{"Start":"01:55.610 ","End":"01:58.190","Text":"Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin were using"},{"Start":"01:58.190 ","End":"02:02.585","Text":"x-ray methods to understand the structure of DNA."},{"Start":"02:02.585 ","End":"02:05.255","Text":"Rosalind Franklin, who you see here,"},{"Start":"02:05.255 ","End":"02:07.790","Text":"which is the name that is not as familiar as"},{"Start":"02:07.790 ","End":"02:10.610","Text":"the others though she made a huge contribution to this,"},{"Start":"02:10.610 ","End":"02:15.875","Text":"produced the picture of a DNA molecule using this technique, the x-ray technique."},{"Start":"02:15.875 ","End":"02:20.540","Text":"Francis Crick and James Watson who worked together at the University of Cambridge,"},{"Start":"02:20.540 ","End":"02:23.975","Text":"England used this technique to determine the structure of DNA."},{"Start":"02:23.975 ","End":"02:28.010","Text":"This enabled Watson to infer that DNA was helical."},{"Start":"02:28.010 ","End":"02:33.620","Text":"Here you\u0027re looking at this image and from this they gathered the DNA\u0027s helical."},{"Start":"02:33.620 ","End":"02:37.055","Text":"In 1962, James Watson, Francis Crick,"},{"Start":"02:37.055 ","End":"02:39.950","Text":"and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in"},{"Start":"02:39.950 ","End":"02:44.555","Text":"Medicine for this discovery as you can see here."},{"Start":"02:44.555 ","End":"02:48.410","Text":"The sequence of the monomeric subunits, the nucleotides,"},{"Start":"02:48.410 ","End":"02:51.410","Text":"in this case deoxyribonucleotides in the linear polymer"},{"Start":"02:51.410 ","End":"02:56.990","Text":"DNA encode the instructions for forming all other cellular components."},{"Start":"02:56.990 ","End":"02:59.300","Text":"What we see here is the helical DNA,"},{"Start":"02:59.300 ","End":"03:04.680","Text":"as was suggested and discovered by the Nobel Prize winners and Franklin"},{"Start":"03:04.680 ","End":"03:10.865","Text":"and this is what encodes the instructions to forming all other cellular components."},{"Start":"03:10.865 ","End":"03:13.850","Text":"Furthermore, it provides a template for the production of"},{"Start":"03:13.850 ","End":"03:18.580","Text":"identical DNA molecules to be passed along to progeny when cells divide."},{"Start":"03:18.580 ","End":"03:22.310","Text":"The continuation of biological species requires that"},{"Start":"03:22.310 ","End":"03:25.985","Text":"its genetic information be maintained in a stable form,"},{"Start":"03:25.985 ","End":"03:28.070","Text":"in essence, stable storage."},{"Start":"03:28.070 ","End":"03:33.215","Text":"Something that keeps it and maintains its fidelity."},{"Start":"03:33.215 ","End":"03:38.360","Text":"It also requires that it be expressed accurately in the form of gene products,"},{"Start":"03:38.360 ","End":"03:43.085","Text":"and that it is reproduced with a minimum of errors."},{"Start":"03:43.085 ","End":"03:49.100","Text":"Similarly, what maintains distinction between species is effective storage."},{"Start":"03:49.100 ","End":"03:52.580","Text":"As you see here, you have the chromosomes,"},{"Start":"03:52.580 ","End":"03:57.665","Text":"the DNA it is within the nucleus protected within"},{"Start":"03:57.665 ","End":"04:01.130","Text":"this aqueous solution in the nucleus in"},{"Start":"04:01.130 ","End":"04:05.480","Text":"the nuclear membrane that is further protected within this aqueous solution,"},{"Start":"04:05.480 ","End":"04:08.840","Text":"the cytoplasm that\u0027s within the cellular membrane."},{"Start":"04:08.840 ","End":"04:13.825","Text":"What else maintains distinction between species, consistent expression."},{"Start":"04:13.825 ","End":"04:16.340","Text":"As you can see here, we have the DNA molecule and"},{"Start":"04:16.340 ","End":"04:19.325","Text":"its process of expression where it goes from DNA template"},{"Start":"04:19.325 ","End":"04:25.115","Text":"to transcription of mRNA to translation into the protein and this needs to be consistent."},{"Start":"04:25.115 ","End":"04:28.549","Text":"This genetic code needs to code for something specific"},{"Start":"04:28.549 ","End":"04:32.730","Text":"that is consistent throughout generations and time."},{"Start":"04:32.730 ","End":"04:37.415","Text":"The third thing that maintains distinction between species is accurate reproduction,"},{"Start":"04:37.415 ","End":"04:40.985","Text":"so that when the parental DNA splits,"},{"Start":"04:40.985 ","End":"04:44.840","Text":"you actually have it maintained and you have"},{"Start":"04:44.840 ","End":"04:49.654","Text":"parental DNA into first replication and it should stay the same,"},{"Start":"04:49.654 ","End":"04:51.590","Text":"thus accuracy is important,"},{"Start":"04:51.590 ","End":"04:55.235","Text":"consistency is important and then you have second replication."},{"Start":"04:55.235 ","End":"04:57.155","Text":"This is called semi-conservative."},{"Start":"04:57.155 ","End":"04:59.750","Text":"I\u0027m not going into details of this right now, but bottom line,"},{"Start":"04:59.750 ","End":"05:05.090","Text":"it\u0027s semi-conservative because the strands separate and then on each one you have"},{"Start":"05:05.090 ","End":"05:11.560","Text":"1 previous strand and 1 new strand,"},{"Start":"05:11.560 ","End":"05:20.120","Text":"and that\u0027s how it goes on."},{"Start":"05:20.120 ","End":"05:23.270","Text":"I\u0027m just saying 1 prime or 2 star,"},{"Start":"05:23.270 ","End":"05:25.580","Text":"so it\u0027s considered semi-conservative."},{"Start":"05:25.580 ","End":"05:28.040","Text":"All these assure the continuity of species over"},{"Start":"05:28.040 ","End":"05:32.900","Text":"successive generations as well as the distinction between the species."},{"Start":"05:32.900 ","End":"05:35.645","Text":"This is what assures these things and if you remember,"},{"Start":"05:35.645 ","End":"05:39.065","Text":"we have effective storage, consistent expression, and accurate reproduction."},{"Start":"05:39.065 ","End":"05:42.020","Text":"This is what maintains the differences between the species by"},{"Start":"05:42.020 ","End":"05:45.950","Text":"keeping each species somewhat the same."},{"Start":"05:45.950 ","End":"05:47.500","Text":"We can\u0027t say exactly the same."},{"Start":"05:47.500 ","End":"05:51.410","Text":"We\u0027ll talk about there\u0027s slight chances of mutation, etc."},{"Start":"05:51.410 ","End":"05:54.800","Text":"But it keeps certain species the same"},{"Start":"05:54.800 ","End":"05:58.714","Text":"and the same within the species is different from the other species,"},{"Start":"05:58.714 ","End":"06:01.550","Text":"so these things are similar"},{"Start":"06:01.550 ","End":"06:04.955","Text":"to what we say the continuation of biological species requires."},{"Start":"06:04.955 ","End":"06:07.189","Text":"Genetic information be maintained in a stable form,"},{"Start":"06:07.189 ","End":"06:08.750","Text":"that is to be expressed accurately in the form of"},{"Start":"06:08.750 ","End":"06:10.850","Text":"gene products and reproduced with a minimum of errors."},{"Start":"06:10.850 ","End":"06:14.894","Text":"All these assure the continuity of species over successive generations."},{"Start":"06:14.894 ","End":"06:17.945","Text":"Wrapping this up with the previous point,"},{"Start":"06:17.945 ","End":"06:21.680","Text":"we can say continuation and distinction are both"},{"Start":"06:21.680 ","End":"06:25.850","Text":"maintained by these characteristics so if we look at what we mentioned just now,"},{"Start":"06:25.850 ","End":"06:29.645","Text":"what maintains distinction between species so distinction"},{"Start":"06:29.645 ","End":"06:34.310","Text":"is effective storage that this information is stored well and"},{"Start":"06:34.310 ","End":"06:39.890","Text":"the information from 1 species is stored for it specifically and maintained while"},{"Start":"06:39.890 ","End":"06:42.365","Text":"for another species also stored and maintained"},{"Start":"06:42.365 ","End":"06:45.560","Text":"and these are kept different throughout the generations."},{"Start":"06:45.560 ","End":"06:46.670","Text":"On the same account,"},{"Start":"06:46.670 ","End":"06:49.700","Text":"the continuation of biological species requires that"},{"Start":"06:49.700 ","End":"06:53.120","Text":"its genetic information be maintained in a stable form."},{"Start":"06:53.120 ","End":"07:00.710","Text":"You have this idea of stable storage being in common for both."},{"Start":"07:00.710 ","End":"07:06.970","Text":"Stability is super important in the process of evolution and continuation"},{"Start":"07:06.970 ","End":"07:13.805","Text":"of each specific species as distinctive from another species."},{"Start":"07:13.805 ","End":"07:19.290","Text":"The second thing that maintains distinction between species is consistent expression."},{"Start":"07:20.170 ","End":"07:22.550","Text":"If we\u0027re looking at the continuation of"},{"Start":"07:22.550 ","End":"07:24.740","Text":"biological species that also requires that it\u0027d be"},{"Start":"07:24.740 ","End":"07:28.700","Text":"expressed accurately in the form of gene products,"},{"Start":"07:28.700 ","End":"07:32.500","Text":"so we now have accuracy,"},{"Start":"07:32.500 ","End":"07:36.395","Text":"minimum errors in this whole process."},{"Start":"07:36.395 ","End":"07:38.795","Text":"Then we have the third thing."},{"Start":"07:38.795 ","End":"07:44.585","Text":"For the third criteria that is important for maintaining distinction between species,"},{"Start":"07:44.585 ","End":"07:46.910","Text":"it is accurate reproduction,"},{"Start":"07:46.910 ","End":"07:50.195","Text":"so we have accuracy and again,"},{"Start":"07:50.195 ","End":"07:55.280","Text":"that means that not only is the expression consistent within,"},{"Start":"07:55.280 ","End":"07:59.760","Text":"but the reproduction between generations is accurate."},{"Start":"07:59.760 ","End":"08:02.435","Text":"If we look at the continuation of biological species,"},{"Start":"08:02.435 ","End":"08:06.785","Text":"it requires reproduction with a minimum of errors."},{"Start":"08:06.785 ","End":"08:11.420","Text":"Error free, as much as it could be error-free,"},{"Start":"08:11.420 ","End":"08:15.140","Text":"we know that there are errors, mutations and whatever."},{"Start":"08:15.140 ","End":"08:20.599","Text":"Many of these errors result in the fact that the organism that mutation does not survive"},{"Start":"08:20.599 ","End":"08:26.790","Text":"but we also have cases of minor mutations that allow for survival of the organism."},{"Start":"08:26.790 ","End":"08:29.300","Text":"As you can see, these are quite similar."},{"Start":"08:29.300 ","End":"08:33.605","Text":"With this, we completed the introduction to genetic foundations,"},{"Start":"08:33.605 ","End":"08:34.880","Text":"and you should be able to state"},{"Start":"08:34.880 ","End":"08:37.519","Text":"what maintains species continuity and species distinctions."},{"Start":"08:37.519 ","End":"08:40.280","Text":"Remember ABC, we have those 3."},{"Start":"08:40.280 ","End":"08:44.090","Text":"Understand the significance of genetic material to biological species continuity,"},{"Start":"08:44.090 ","End":"08:49.120","Text":"how the genetic material is important for biological species continuity."},{"Start":"08:49.120 ","End":"08:50.780","Text":"List the key discoveries made with regard to"},{"Start":"08:50.780 ","End":"08:53.780","Text":"DNA 3 dimensional structure with regard to the technique,"},{"Start":"08:53.780 ","End":"08:56.705","Text":"extra technique and the scientists that"},{"Start":"08:56.705 ","End":"09:00.545","Text":"contributed to this and appreciate the importance of the DNA sequence."},{"Start":"09:00.545 ","End":"09:05.520","Text":"From here we will move on to the exercises and the following section."}],"ID":27071},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 1","Duration":"1m 16s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26122,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.617","Text":"Hi. We\u0027re within exercises covering Intro to"},{"Start":"00:03.617 ","End":"00:07.620","Text":"Genetic Foundations within our topic of Genetic Foundation."},{"Start":"00:07.620 ","End":"00:12.105","Text":"While records of historical civilizations have rarely survived for 1,000 of years,"},{"Start":"00:12.105 ","End":"00:16.875","Text":"a clue-in to the evolution is what type of biological evidence."},{"Start":"00:16.875 ","End":"00:19.260","Text":"Then we talked about how records of"},{"Start":"00:19.260 ","End":"00:23.880","Text":"historical civilizations had barely and rarely survived over the years,"},{"Start":"00:23.880 ","End":"00:27.600","Text":"yet there is a big clue into"},{"Start":"00:27.600 ","End":"00:32.685","Text":"the evolution that we can use as a type of biological evidence."},{"Start":"00:32.685 ","End":"00:36.300","Text":"The type of biological evidence is genetic information in"},{"Start":"00:36.300 ","End":"00:39.705","Text":"bones and other such remains as well as in living organisms,"},{"Start":"00:39.705 ","End":"00:43.040","Text":"and they serve as historical evidence of evolution."},{"Start":"00:43.040 ","End":"00:49.445","Text":"Genetic information has remained virtually unchanged over great periods of times,"},{"Start":"00:49.445 ","End":"00:54.180","Text":"which is an amazing remarkable property."},{"Start":"00:54.220 ","End":"00:58.100","Text":"What we rely on as biological evidence as a clue into"},{"Start":"00:58.100 ","End":"01:02.690","Text":"the evolution is genetic information; DNA,"},{"Start":"01:02.690 ","End":"01:06.920","Text":"RNA that has been found historically and"},{"Start":"01:06.920 ","End":"01:12.350","Text":"compared to information and genetic material of organisms today."},{"Start":"01:12.350 ","End":"01:15.420","Text":"With that we completed this exercise."}],"ID":27072},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 2","Duration":"2m 8s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26123,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.740","Text":"Let\u0027s jump into another exercise in Introduction to Genetic Foundations."},{"Start":"00:04.740 ","End":"00:08.910","Text":"What encodes the instructions for forming all other cellular components,"},{"Start":"00:08.910 ","End":"00:11.340","Text":"as well as provides a template for the production of"},{"Start":"00:11.340 ","End":"00:15.585","Text":"identical DNA molecules to be passed along to progeny when cells divide?"},{"Start":"00:15.585 ","End":"00:17.250","Text":"So we\u0027re looking for what encodes"},{"Start":"00:17.250 ","End":"00:20.490","Text":"the instructions to forming all other cellular components,"},{"Start":"00:20.490 ","End":"00:23.415","Text":"as well as provides a template for the production"},{"Start":"00:23.415 ","End":"00:26.985","Text":"of identical DNA molecules passed along to progeny."},{"Start":"00:26.985 ","End":"00:31.245","Text":"The answer to that will be the sequence of the monomeric sub-units,"},{"Start":"00:31.245 ","End":"00:34.245","Text":"the nucleotides in the linear polymer,"},{"Start":"00:34.245 ","End":"00:37.860","Text":"in the linear chain in eukaryotes"},{"Start":"00:37.860 ","End":"00:42.135","Text":"and most prokaryotes is what encodes these instructions."},{"Start":"00:42.135 ","End":"00:46.310","Text":"We talked about the nucleotides and it will be, if you remember,"},{"Start":"00:46.310 ","End":"00:50.495","Text":"we talked about in previous sections the movie GATTACA as"},{"Start":"00:50.495 ","End":"00:56.255","Text":"a way to remember the 4 different nucleotides in DNA."},{"Start":"00:56.255 ","End":"01:04.685","Text":"Whereas in RNA you would have U instead of T. I\u0027m touching back on previous material."},{"Start":"01:04.685 ","End":"01:06.320","Text":"We have this T, A, G,"},{"Start":"01:06.320 ","End":"01:07.715","Text":"A, C,"},{"Start":"01:07.715 ","End":"01:08.975","Text":"A, C, T,"},{"Start":"01:08.975 ","End":"01:11.000","Text":"G. I\u0027m skipping the A because it\u0027s repeat."},{"Start":"01:11.000 ","End":"01:18.590","Text":"But bottom line, this sequence of these monomeric sub-units is what actually gives"},{"Start":"01:18.590 ","End":"01:23.000","Text":"the instructions for forming the components and provides the template"},{"Start":"01:23.000 ","End":"01:28.490","Text":"for the identical DNA molecules and eukaryotes and most prokaryotes."},{"Start":"01:28.490 ","End":"01:31.400","Text":"These sub-units are deoxyribonucleotides."},{"Start":"01:31.400 ","End":"01:37.040","Text":"In the case of all eukaryotes and most prokaryotes that make up the polymer DNA."},{"Start":"01:37.040 ","End":"01:38.630","Text":"So these sub-units,"},{"Start":"01:38.630 ","End":"01:44.990","Text":"these deoxyribonucleotides in the case of DNA are what make up the polymer DNA."},{"Start":"01:44.990 ","End":"01:48.650","Text":"And what you see here are those deoxyribonucleotide,"},{"Start":"01:48.650 ","End":"01:52.310","Text":"the nitrogenous bases, adenine, thymine,"},{"Start":"01:52.310 ","End":"01:54.590","Text":"guanine, and cytosine,"},{"Start":"01:54.590 ","End":"01:57.185","Text":"and you see here the different structures"},{"Start":"01:57.185 ","End":"02:01.610","Text":"illustrated and how they pair up with each other."},{"Start":"02:01.610 ","End":"02:06.200","Text":"That is, with regard to instruction within the genetic material."},{"Start":"02:06.200 ","End":"02:08.610","Text":"See you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27073},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 3","Duration":"5m 10s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26124,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.310","Text":"What have we covered within intro to"},{"Start":"00:02.310 ","End":"00:05.820","Text":"genetic foundations and our topic of Genetic Foundation?"},{"Start":"00:05.820 ","End":"00:08.535","Text":"This question will be broken into 2 parts."},{"Start":"00:08.535 ","End":"00:13.620","Text":"Part 1, what is true and crucial for the continuation of biological species?"},{"Start":"00:13.620 ","End":"00:18.105","Text":"A, that it\u0027s genetic information be maintained in stable form."},{"Start":"00:18.105 ","End":"00:22.830","Text":"B, that the genetic information be expressed accurately in the form of gene products."},{"Start":"00:22.830 ","End":"00:27.825","Text":"C, that the genetic material is copied with a minimum of errors and D,"},{"Start":"00:27.825 ","End":"00:29.475","Text":"all the answers above."},{"Start":"00:29.475 ","End":"00:32.040","Text":"Remember we talked about what is important and"},{"Start":"00:32.040 ","End":"00:35.280","Text":"crucial for the continuation of the biological species,"},{"Start":"00:35.280 ","End":"00:39.915","Text":"to maintain the species over time in generations."},{"Start":"00:39.915 ","End":"00:42.390","Text":"Let\u0027s go back to our options."},{"Start":"00:42.390 ","End":"00:47.060","Text":"A, it is crucial that genetic information be"},{"Start":"00:47.060 ","End":"00:51.875","Text":"maintained in a stable form, stable storage."},{"Start":"00:51.875 ","End":"00:53.960","Text":"Well, we talked about that and yes,"},{"Start":"00:53.960 ","End":"00:56.390","Text":"this seems to an important,"},{"Start":"00:56.390 ","End":"00:58.895","Text":"so we will say A."},{"Start":"00:58.895 ","End":"01:00.920","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to B."},{"Start":"01:00.920 ","End":"01:04.430","Text":"Is it important and crucial for continuation of biological species that"},{"Start":"01:04.430 ","End":"01:06.709","Text":"the genetic information be expressed accurately"},{"Start":"01:06.709 ","End":"01:09.185","Text":"in a form of gene products, to the expression?"},{"Start":"01:09.185 ","End":"01:11.345","Text":"When you have the DNA expressed,"},{"Start":"01:11.345 ","End":"01:18.870","Text":"meaning it\u0027s becoming at the end it comes through mRNA to protein."},{"Start":"01:18.870 ","End":"01:22.575","Text":"The functional aspects in the cell,"},{"Start":"01:22.575 ","End":"01:27.410","Text":"this expression is super crucial to have an accurate otherwise,"},{"Start":"01:27.410 ","End":"01:31.220","Text":"you will have errors that will lead to malfunctioning,"},{"Start":"01:31.220 ","End":"01:33.980","Text":"degradation, and other possible harmful results."},{"Start":"01:33.980 ","End":"01:36.650","Text":"Therefore, it is important that the genetic information be"},{"Start":"01:36.650 ","End":"01:39.550","Text":"expressed accurately in the form of gene products,"},{"Start":"01:39.550 ","End":"01:41.615","Text":"so B seems correct as well."},{"Start":"01:41.615 ","End":"01:45.860","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to C. It is important and crucial for the continuation of"},{"Start":"01:45.860 ","End":"01:50.180","Text":"biological species that the genetic material is copied with a minimum of errors."},{"Start":"01:50.180 ","End":"01:54.995","Text":"Well, the copying of an element of errors is important because for the next generations,"},{"Start":"01:54.995 ","End":"02:00.210","Text":"so this is important within the individual organism,"},{"Start":"02:00.210 ","End":"02:07.370","Text":"but this is also super crucial for maintenance of the species over generations."},{"Start":"02:07.370 ","End":"02:10.325","Text":"This also is very important."},{"Start":"02:10.325 ","End":"02:11.720","Text":"Therefore, C is correct,"},{"Start":"02:11.720 ","End":"02:12.950","Text":"which leaves us with D,"},{"Start":"02:12.950 ","End":"02:14.575","Text":"all of the answers above,"},{"Start":"02:14.575 ","End":"02:17.855","Text":"and since we know that all of these are correct,"},{"Start":"02:17.855 ","End":"02:21.620","Text":"selecting any one them will be incorrect because all 3 of them are,"},{"Start":"02:21.620 ","End":"02:24.380","Text":"so D is our correct answer."},{"Start":"02:24.380 ","End":"02:27.155","Text":"Here we talked about continuation of biological species."},{"Start":"02:27.155 ","End":"02:32.185","Text":"All these assure the continuity of species over successive generations."},{"Start":"02:32.185 ","End":"02:36.360","Text":"Part 2 is what maintains distinction between species,"},{"Start":"02:36.360 ","End":"02:38.760","Text":"and let\u0027s go over the options."},{"Start":"02:38.760 ","End":"02:41.875","Text":"A, effective storage of genetic material."},{"Start":"02:41.875 ","End":"02:45.170","Text":"B, consistent and precise expression of genetic material,"},{"Start":"02:45.170 ","End":"02:49.849","Text":"so consistent and precise expression, here it\u0027s storage."},{"Start":"02:49.849 ","End":"02:52.930","Text":"C, accurate reproduction, replication of genetic material,"},{"Start":"02:52.930 ","End":"02:56.360","Text":"so the reproduction and replication accurate and D,"},{"Start":"02:56.360 ","End":"02:57.635","Text":"all of the answers above."},{"Start":"02:57.635 ","End":"02:58.940","Text":"Well, if you remember,"},{"Start":"02:58.940 ","End":"03:04.580","Text":"we looked at continuation of species and distinction of species."},{"Start":"03:04.580 ","End":"03:10.740","Text":"We actually saw that these are almost one and the same,"},{"Start":"03:10.740 ","End":"03:12.600","Text":"so they go hand in hand."},{"Start":"03:12.600 ","End":"03:18.905","Text":"What maintains a species unique and the same is also what maintains"},{"Start":"03:18.905 ","End":"03:22.160","Text":"that species different from the other species that is"},{"Start":"03:22.160 ","End":"03:26.600","Text":"maintained accurately over generations and within each organism."},{"Start":"03:26.600 ","End":"03:29.795","Text":"A, effective storage of genetic material,"},{"Start":"03:29.795 ","End":"03:33.500","Text":"yeah, that is something that maintains distinction between species."},{"Start":"03:33.500 ","End":"03:38.730","Text":"We also saw that it is important for continuity of species,"},{"Start":"03:38.810 ","End":"03:40.905","Text":"so we can say this is correct."},{"Start":"03:40.905 ","End":"03:44.150","Text":"B, consistent and precise expression of genetic material."},{"Start":"03:44.150 ","End":"03:46.430","Text":"We said this is super important as well."},{"Start":"03:46.430 ","End":"03:50.210","Text":"We want the genetic material to be expressed precisely and"},{"Start":"03:50.210 ","End":"03:55.895","Text":"consistently so that these organisms function in a similar way."},{"Start":"03:55.895 ","End":"03:57.800","Text":"Then we have C,"},{"Start":"03:57.800 ","End":"04:00.410","Text":"accurate reproduction, replication of genetic material."},{"Start":"04:00.410 ","End":"04:07.550","Text":"Well, we also know that we want their accuracy over replication, over generations."},{"Start":"04:07.550 ","End":"04:12.200","Text":"That is what allows for this species to be distinct,"},{"Start":"04:12.200 ","End":"04:15.980","Text":"that it remains as it is through the generation."},{"Start":"04:15.980 ","End":"04:21.335","Text":"Therefore, this is also an important point to maintain distinction between species,"},{"Start":"04:21.335 ","End":"04:28.190","Text":"and then therefore we can say all of the answers above are correct."},{"Start":"04:28.190 ","End":"04:29.855","Text":"If you just answer one of them,"},{"Start":"04:29.855 ","End":"04:31.430","Text":"we were missing out on other ones,"},{"Start":"04:31.430 ","End":"04:36.620","Text":"which means that either you haven\u0027t understood completely the importance of these 3,"},{"Start":"04:36.620 ","End":"04:39.860","Text":"all of them because if we just have 1 or 2 of them,"},{"Start":"04:39.860 ","End":"04:43.280","Text":"this will not remain the same."},{"Start":"04:43.280 ","End":"04:46.460","Text":"That leaves us with D,"},{"Start":"04:46.460 ","End":"04:48.505","Text":"all of the answers above."},{"Start":"04:48.505 ","End":"04:50.870","Text":"All these help assure that each species has"},{"Start":"04:50.870 ","End":"04:55.789","Text":"some distinct hereditary characteristics that distinguish it from other species."},{"Start":"04:55.789 ","End":"04:59.045","Text":"The same things that help maintain the species overtime is what"},{"Start":"04:59.045 ","End":"05:02.795","Text":"also helps keep the distinction between species."},{"Start":"05:02.795 ","End":"05:05.930","Text":"This is very important to understand, and from this,"},{"Start":"05:05.930 ","End":"05:10.920","Text":"we will move forward and dive deeper into genetics."}],"ID":27074},{"Watched":false,"Name":"The DNA Molecule","Duration":"13m 59s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26125,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.525","Text":"Hi, we\u0027re continuing to explore genetic foundations,"},{"Start":"00:03.525 ","End":"00:06.210","Text":"and we are now going to talk about the DNA molecule."},{"Start":"00:06.210 ","End":"00:09.390","Text":"By the end of this session, you will be able to comprehend the concept of"},{"Start":"00:09.390 ","End":"00:12.540","Text":"DNA molecule fidelity and understand the contribution of"},{"Start":"00:12.540 ","End":"00:16.690","Text":"DNA structure to its ability to replicate with near-perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"00:16.690 ","End":"00:20.940","Text":"DNA is a long, thin organic polymer."},{"Start":"00:20.940 ","End":"00:25.500","Text":"A human sperm or egg cell carrying the hereditary information of billions of years"},{"Start":"00:25.500 ","End":"00:29.910","Text":"of evolution transmits this inheritance in the form of DNA molecules,"},{"Start":"00:29.910 ","End":"00:31.200","Text":"in which the linear sequence of"},{"Start":"00:31.200 ","End":"00:35.325","Text":"covalently-linked nucleotide sub-units encodes the genetic message."},{"Start":"00:35.325 ","End":"00:37.950","Text":"That sounded really complicated."},{"Start":"00:37.950 ","End":"00:40.485","Text":"All we\u0027re saying is that the DNA,"},{"Start":"00:40.485 ","End":"00:44.090","Text":"as we mentioned, is made up of the nucleotides."},{"Start":"00:44.090 ","End":"00:51.320","Text":"It\u0027s a chain of these monomeric nucleotides set up in a specific sequence in order."},{"Start":"00:51.320 ","End":"00:53.360","Text":"It\u0027s a linear sequence of"},{"Start":"00:53.360 ","End":"00:56.660","Text":"these nucleotides sub-units that are covalently linked together."},{"Start":"00:56.660 ","End":"01:01.100","Text":"Covalently is a type of bond that we didn\u0027t specifically cover."},{"Start":"01:01.100 ","End":"01:03.230","Text":"You should remember it from basic chemistry,"},{"Start":"01:03.230 ","End":"01:04.540","Text":"Introduction to Chemistry,"},{"Start":"01:04.540 ","End":"01:07.775","Text":"Chemistry 1, or whatever it\u0027s called whatever you\u0027re studying."},{"Start":"01:07.775 ","End":"01:11.479","Text":"But these are bound together in a strong,"},{"Start":"01:11.479 ","End":"01:15.440","Text":"stable bond, and they make this linear sequence."},{"Start":"01:15.440 ","End":"01:18.545","Text":"That is what makes the DNA molecule."},{"Start":"01:18.545 ","End":"01:24.090","Text":"What you see is that it is maintained within the sperm and the egg cell,"},{"Start":"01:24.090 ","End":"01:28.080","Text":"and what you see here is the sperm just haploid,"},{"Start":"01:28.080 ","End":"01:34.140","Text":"meaning 1 set of genes of each chromosomal gene,"},{"Start":"01:34.140 ","End":"01:37.880","Text":"and you have a haploid egg, 1 set."},{"Start":"01:37.880 ","End":"01:40.580","Text":"Remember, we generally will have 2,"},{"Start":"01:40.580 ","End":"01:47.795","Text":"but when these sperm and egg go through the split,"},{"Start":"01:47.795 ","End":"01:51.410","Text":"they actually separate the 2 chromosomes and"},{"Start":"01:51.410 ","End":"01:55.790","Text":"you only get 1 per sperm cell and 1 per egg cell,"},{"Start":"01:55.790 ","End":"01:57.395","Text":"and that\u0027s called haploid."},{"Start":"01:57.395 ","End":"01:59.873","Text":"This would be diploid,"},{"Start":"01:59.873 ","End":"02:01.335","Text":"and I\u0027m throwing these terms out."},{"Start":"02:01.335 ","End":"02:03.968","Text":"Just to tell you, it\u0027s 1 copy of the chromosome,"},{"Start":"02:03.968 ","End":"02:09.665","Text":"and it is the sperm and egg cells in eukaryotes that are haploid,"},{"Start":"02:09.665 ","End":"02:14.135","Text":"and then they come together to form the diploid zygote."},{"Start":"02:14.135 ","End":"02:17.430","Text":"This now has 2 copies of each chromosome,"},{"Start":"02:17.430 ","End":"02:19.466","Text":"1 maternal from the egg,"},{"Start":"02:19.466 ","End":"02:27.660","Text":"from the mom, and 1 paternal from the sperm from the dad."},{"Start":"02:27.970 ","End":"02:32.465","Text":"It is difficult to predict the behavior of any single molecule in a collection."},{"Start":"02:32.465 ","End":"02:33.905","Text":"For example, a picomole,"},{"Start":"02:33.905 ","End":"02:37.565","Text":"about 6 times 10^11 molecules."},{"Start":"02:37.565 ","End":"02:39.755","Text":"That\u0027s a picomole."},{"Start":"02:39.755 ","End":"02:42.065","Text":"It is difficult to predict the behavior of"},{"Start":"02:42.065 ","End":"02:45.455","Text":"any single molecule in a collection of a compound,"},{"Start":"02:45.455 ","End":"02:48.830","Text":"yet the average behavior of the molecules is predictable."},{"Start":"02:48.830 ","End":"02:50.615","Text":"When you\u0027re looking at 1 molecule,"},{"Start":"02:50.615 ","End":"02:52.645","Text":"you can\u0027t necessarily know exactly its behavior,"},{"Start":"02:52.645 ","End":"02:55.393","Text":"but when you\u0027re looking at a bunch of molecules, you can."},{"Start":"02:55.393 ","End":"02:58.940","Text":"You\u0027re saying like maybe 1 bacteria versus a plethora of bacteria,"},{"Start":"02:58.940 ","End":"03:02.300","Text":"they will have an average behavior, similar behaviors."},{"Start":"03:02.300 ","End":"03:06.855","Text":"Yet, when the properties of a chemical species is described,"},{"Start":"03:06.855 ","End":"03:16.090","Text":"the average behavior of a very large number of identical molecules is represented."},{"Start":"03:16.090 ","End":"03:22.555","Text":"What is actually represented is a large number of identical molecules."},{"Start":"03:22.555 ","End":"03:26.375","Text":"Cellular DNA is an extraordinary exception of this."},{"Start":"03:26.375 ","End":"03:33.245","Text":"Here, the sequence will be identical between different cells of the same organism."},{"Start":"03:33.245 ","End":"03:36.305","Text":"Here, it won\u0027t be an average,"},{"Start":"03:36.305 ","End":"03:38.780","Text":"rather, it will be copies."},{"Start":"03:38.780 ","End":"03:41.413","Text":"It will be like clones of the same thing."},{"Start":"03:41.413 ","End":"03:46.232","Text":"Cellular DNA is the extraordinary exception that, for the cells,"},{"Start":"03:46.232 ","End":"03:51.220","Text":"when we\u0027re looking at the average behavior or the characteristics,"},{"Start":"03:51.220 ","End":"03:55.640","Text":"or the molecule, it is not actually the average,"},{"Start":"03:55.640 ","End":"03:58.400","Text":"it is actually identical."},{"Start":"03:58.400 ","End":"04:01.850","Text":"For example, E. Coli\u0027s entire genetic materials in"},{"Start":"04:01.850 ","End":"04:06.485","Text":"a single DNA molecule containing 4.64 million nucleotide pairs."},{"Start":"04:06.485 ","End":"04:07.970","Text":"Again, we\u0027ve got nucleotides,"},{"Start":"04:07.970 ","End":"04:09.410","Text":"they\u0027re in pairs because they\u0027re bound."},{"Start":"04:09.410 ","End":"04:13.070","Text":"You have 2 nucleotides are bound to each other,"},{"Start":"04:13.070 ","End":"04:16.566","Text":"G to C, A to T, etc."},{"Start":"04:16.566 ","End":"04:19.550","Text":"E. Coli\u0027s entire genetic material is the single DNA molecule"},{"Start":"04:19.550 ","End":"04:23.225","Text":"containing 4.64 million nucleotide pairs."},{"Start":"04:23.225 ","End":"04:26.360","Text":"That single molecule must be replicated."},{"Start":"04:26.360 ","End":"04:29.590","Text":"As you see here, the nucleotide, the DNA,"},{"Start":"04:29.590 ","End":"04:33.680","Text":"another depiction of the E. Coli or prokaryotic cell,"},{"Start":"04:33.680 ","End":"04:37.850","Text":"that single molecule must be replicated perfectly in every detail in"},{"Start":"04:37.850 ","End":"04:42.230","Text":"order for the E. Coli cell to give rise to identical progeny by cell division."},{"Start":"04:42.230 ","End":"04:45.350","Text":"This perfect replication is important."},{"Start":"04:45.350 ","End":"04:46.730","Text":"It\u0027s not an average,"},{"Start":"04:46.730 ","End":"04:48.790","Text":"reminding you this is a prokaryote,"},{"Start":"04:48.790 ","End":"04:54.065","Text":"this is a single cell bacteria so that the entire cell is the entirety of the organism."},{"Start":"04:54.065 ","End":"04:57.350","Text":"In order for these organisms to stay the same,"},{"Start":"04:57.350 ","End":"05:01.730","Text":"each organism needs to be replicated perfectly."},{"Start":"05:01.730 ","End":"05:05.495","Text":"There is no room for averaging in this process."},{"Start":"05:05.495 ","End":"05:08.075","Text":"Otherwise, there will be changes,"},{"Start":"05:08.075 ","End":"05:13.640","Text":"and no longer will be this wild type E. Coli or bacteria."},{"Start":"05:13.640 ","End":"05:16.280","Text":"It will be a mutant that may not survive,"},{"Start":"05:16.280 ","End":"05:21.095","Text":"or that is now going through evolution and forming a different organism."},{"Start":"05:21.095 ","End":"05:23.510","Text":"This is true for all cells."},{"Start":"05:23.510 ","End":"05:25.910","Text":"A human sperm brings to the egg it fertilizes,"},{"Start":"05:25.910 ","End":"05:28.130","Text":"just 1 molecule of DNA, 1."},{"Start":"05:28.130 ","End":"05:32.345","Text":"We said haploid in each of its 23 different chromosomes."},{"Start":"05:32.345 ","End":"05:38.150","Text":"A human sperm brings to the egg just 1 molecule of DNA in each of"},{"Start":"05:38.150 ","End":"05:40.370","Text":"its 23 different chromosomes to combine with"},{"Start":"05:40.370 ","End":"05:46.190","Text":"just 1 DNA molecule of the egg in each corresponding chromosome in the egg."},{"Start":"05:46.190 ","End":"05:47.780","Text":"Human sperm raised to the egg,"},{"Start":"05:47.780 ","End":"05:49.700","Text":"it fertilizes just 1 molecule of DNA in each of"},{"Start":"05:49.700 ","End":"05:52.220","Text":"its 23 different chromosomes to combine with"},{"Start":"05:52.220 ","End":"05:55.469","Text":"just 1 DNA molecule in each corresponding chromosome in the egg."},{"Start":"05:55.469 ","End":"05:57.160","Text":"That\u0027s what we saw before, and now,"},{"Start":"05:57.160 ","End":"06:00.020","Text":"we are looking at these terms that we mentioned,"},{"Start":"06:00.020 ","End":"06:04.490","Text":"haploid and diploid, and that\u0027s the amount of copies of each chromosome."},{"Start":"06:04.490 ","End":"06:06.410","Text":"Haploid means that there\u0027s 1 copy."},{"Start":"06:06.410 ","End":"06:08.060","Text":"Diploid means that there\u0027s 2."},{"Start":"06:08.060 ","End":"06:10.670","Text":"The sperm and the egg are haploid."},{"Start":"06:10.670 ","End":"06:12.829","Text":"They have 1 copy of each chromosome."},{"Start":"06:12.829 ","End":"06:16.693","Text":"They have 1 molecule of DNA per chromosome,"},{"Start":"06:16.693 ","End":"06:18.065","Text":"and when they come together,"},{"Start":"06:18.065 ","End":"06:23.450","Text":"each one contributes 1 copy of each of the 23 chromosomes."},{"Start":"06:23.450 ","End":"06:26.795","Text":"Now, you have 23 chromosomes with 2 copies,"},{"Start":"06:26.795 ","End":"06:32.690","Text":"diploid zygote with both a copy from the sperm and the egg."},{"Start":"06:32.690 ","End":"06:36.800","Text":"The result of this union is an embryo with all of its about 20,000 genes"},{"Start":"06:36.800 ","End":"06:41.570","Text":"constructed of 3 billion nucleotide pairs intact."},{"Start":"06:41.570 ","End":"06:47.715","Text":"This results in the length of the extended human\u0027s DNA molecule being about 2 meters,"},{"Start":"06:47.715 ","End":"06:50.602","Text":"and its diameter is 2 nanometers."},{"Start":"06:50.602 ","End":"06:54.720","Text":"This doesn\u0027t sound wonderfully amazingly huge,"},{"Start":"06:54.720 ","End":"06:56.375","Text":"but all the DNA in your body,"},{"Start":"06:56.375 ","End":"07:00.815","Text":"when you take this 2 meter DNA per cell,"},{"Start":"07:00.815 ","End":"07:06.570","Text":"all of it together can stretch the moon and back again almost 1500 times."},{"Start":"07:06.570 ","End":"07:08.280","Text":"Let me say that again."},{"Start":"07:08.280 ","End":"07:13.230","Text":"You have about 2 meters of DNAs in yourself, in the nucleus."},{"Start":"07:13.230 ","End":"07:17.300","Text":"In that nucleus you have 2 meters of material."},{"Start":"07:17.300 ","End":"07:24.545","Text":"All of this DNA in your body is stretching it from earth to the moon and back,"},{"Start":"07:24.545 ","End":"07:28.940","Text":"you can do this 1,500 times."},{"Start":"07:28.940 ","End":"07:30.925","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to the structure of DNA."},{"Start":"07:30.925 ","End":"07:35.235","Text":"It allows its replication repair with near perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"07:35.235 ","End":"07:39.465","Text":"There\u0027s structural complimentarily between the 2 strains of a DNA molecules,"},{"Start":"07:39.465 ","End":"07:43.500","Text":"so we have 1 strand and 2 strands."},{"Start":"07:43.500 ","End":"07:48.660","Text":"The basic unit of DNA is a linear polymer of 4 different monomeric subunits remember,"},{"Start":"07:48.660 ","End":"07:50.670","Text":"A, T, G,"},{"Start":"07:50.670 ","End":"07:54.840","Text":"and C, adenine, thymine,"},{"Start":"07:54.840 ","End":"07:59.985","Text":"guanine, and cytosine slightly different from each other."},{"Start":"07:59.985 ","End":"08:04.160","Text":"Again, the basic unit of DNA is a linear polymer of 4 different monomeric subunits,"},{"Start":"08:04.160 ","End":"08:08.345","Text":"deoxyribonucleotides arranged in a precise linear sequence,"},{"Start":"08:08.345 ","End":"08:15.930","Text":"so the order in which they are in this linear chain is specific."},{"Start":"08:15.930 ","End":"08:21.170","Text":"The linear sequence encodes the genetic information, so this specific,"},{"Start":"08:21.170 ","End":"08:27.945","Text":"precise linear sequence of these 4 deoxyribonucleotides is specific."},{"Start":"08:27.945 ","End":"08:32.720","Text":"2 of these polymeric strands are twisted about each other to form the DNA double helix,"},{"Start":"08:32.720 ","End":"08:37.400","Text":"as it was discovered through this X-ray techniques mentioned in the previous section,"},{"Start":"08:37.400 ","End":"08:41.460","Text":"and the introduction to genetic information."},{"Start":"08:41.460 ","End":"08:43.200","Text":"We talked about the scientists that won"},{"Start":"08:43.200 ","End":"08:45.930","Text":"the Nobel Prize as well as Franklin that contributed to"},{"Start":"08:45.930 ","End":"08:50.880","Text":"resolving this double helix in which each deoxyribonucleotide in 1 strand,"},{"Start":"08:50.880 ","End":"08:55.689","Text":"pairs specifically with a complimentary deoxyribonucleotide in the opposite strand."},{"Start":"08:55.689 ","End":"08:58.765","Text":"You have of these 4,"},{"Start":"08:58.765 ","End":"09:05.415","Text":"each one can associate with another deoxyribonucleotide in a specific manner."},{"Start":"09:05.415 ","End":"09:11.250","Text":"We will have T associating with A and G,"},{"Start":"09:11.250 ","End":"09:16.475","Text":"associating with C. A will associate"},{"Start":"09:16.475 ","End":"09:21.930","Text":"with T and G will associate with C. You see here blue is G,"},{"Start":"09:21.930 ","End":"09:25.865","Text":"green is C, this is just a visual representation, not the actual colors."},{"Start":"09:25.865 ","End":"09:30.590","Text":"You have here A adenine is this red, pink,"},{"Start":"09:30.590 ","End":"09:32.355","Text":"and thymine is this yellow,"},{"Start":"09:32.355 ","End":"09:34.025","Text":"so red and yellow,"},{"Start":"09:34.025 ","End":"09:36.635","Text":"or pink and yellow, green and blue,"},{"Start":"09:36.635 ","End":"09:38.775","Text":"that\u0027s what associates with each other."},{"Start":"09:38.775 ","End":"09:42.420","Text":"Before a cell divides the 2 DNA strands separate and each serves"},{"Start":"09:42.420 ","End":"09:46.350","Text":"as a template for synthesis of a new complementary strand,"},{"Start":"09:46.350 ","End":"09:49.005","Text":"generating 2 identical double helical molecules,"},{"Start":"09:49.005 ","End":"09:50.880","Text":"1 for each daughter cell."},{"Start":"09:50.880 ","End":"09:54.970","Text":"Remember we mentioned semi-conservative replication,"},{"Start":"09:54.970 ","End":"09:56.825","Text":"so let\u0027s look at this."},{"Start":"09:56.825 ","End":"09:58.730","Text":"We have a parental molecule,"},{"Start":"09:58.730 ","End":"10:01.125","Text":"you have A associating with T,"},{"Start":"10:01.125 ","End":"10:02.685","Text":"C associating with G,"},{"Start":"10:02.685 ","End":"10:04.950","Text":"just as we\u0027ve mentioned, even if the G is on this side,"},{"Start":"10:04.950 ","End":"10:06.180","Text":"then C will be at this side."},{"Start":"10:06.180 ","End":"10:08.890","Text":"You have the orientation, we haven\u0027t really covered this,"},{"Start":"10:08.890 ","End":"10:12.645","Text":"but 5 prime to 3 prime and then here\u0027s 5 prime to 3 prime."},{"Start":"10:12.645 ","End":"10:16.095","Text":"These are things that are important"},{"Start":"10:16.095 ","End":"10:19.929","Text":"later in understanding the direction of the mechanisms,"},{"Start":"10:19.929 ","End":"10:22.985","Text":"the enzymes that do these replication and copying."},{"Start":"10:22.985 ","End":"10:28.310","Text":"You have these associated nucleotides that are specific and precise,"},{"Start":"10:28.310 ","End":"10:29.770","Text":"you have a parental molecule,"},{"Start":"10:29.770 ","End":"10:33.855","Text":"the double-stranded helix, and now they are going to separate."},{"Start":"10:33.855 ","End":"10:37.950","Text":"This parental association of strands is now broken"},{"Start":"10:37.950 ","End":"10:42.140","Text":"and they have been separated into 2 templates."},{"Start":"10:42.140 ","End":"10:44.360","Text":"Each strand can now be a template,"},{"Start":"10:44.360 ","End":"10:46.450","Text":"and now that they\u0027ve been separated,"},{"Start":"10:46.450 ","End":"10:52.725","Text":"there can be an enzyme that will come and grab free nucleotides from around the cell,"},{"Start":"10:52.725 ","End":"10:59.210","Text":"and it will now complement and add these nucleotides according"},{"Start":"10:59.210 ","End":"11:06.005","Text":"to the actual complimentary ribonucleotide on the parental strand."},{"Start":"11:06.005 ","End":"11:11.110","Text":"You have an enzyme that will come and see this strand and say, I\u0027ve got an A here,"},{"Start":"11:11.110 ","End":"11:13.710","Text":"so I will bring a T. I\u0027ve got a C here,"},{"Start":"11:13.710 ","End":"11:17.695","Text":"so I will bring a G. I\u0027ve got a T here, I need to bring an A."},{"Start":"11:17.695 ","End":"11:19.355","Text":"There\u0027s an A, let\u0027s bring T,"},{"Start":"11:19.355 ","End":"11:20.850","Text":"and so on and so forth."},{"Start":"11:20.850 ","End":"11:27.120","Text":"The same happens on the other parental DNA so you have this is the parental DNA,"},{"Start":"11:27.120 ","End":"11:30.760","Text":"so now the enzyme is going to bring an A to match the T and a C"},{"Start":"11:30.760 ","End":"11:34.490","Text":"to match the G. What you end up seeing is that when you are looking,"},{"Start":"11:34.490 ","End":"11:38.164","Text":"you have 2 new sets of double-stranded DNA."},{"Start":"11:38.164 ","End":"11:41.250","Text":"Formation of new strands that have complementary to the template strands,"},{"Start":"11:41.250 ","End":"11:44.175","Text":"to the parental strands,"},{"Start":"11:44.175 ","End":"11:48.020","Text":"and then when you compare to the parental strand,"},{"Start":"11:48.020 ","End":"11:50.525","Text":"and this to the parental strand,"},{"Start":"11:50.525 ","End":"11:53.860","Text":"you see that they\u0027re actually identical A, T,"},{"Start":"11:53.860 ","End":"11:55.620","Text":"and these are identical to each other, A, T,"},{"Start":"11:55.620 ","End":"11:58.240","Text":"C, G, C, G, T, A, T, A."},{"Start":"11:58.240 ","End":"12:02.864","Text":"Looking here, zoom out to have a parental DNA."},{"Start":"12:02.864 ","End":"12:06.305","Text":"You have first replication split parental strand,"},{"Start":"12:06.305 ","End":"12:08.370","Text":"one of them goes to each,"},{"Start":"12:08.370 ","End":"12:13.470","Text":"and then you have a complimentary strand that is synthesized,"},{"Start":"12:13.470 ","End":"12:16.010","Text":"and then you have the next replication."},{"Start":"12:16.010 ","End":"12:18.980","Text":"What happens here is now a parental strand of this,"},{"Start":"12:18.980 ","End":"12:23.910","Text":"and the parental strand here goes and splits as well,"},{"Start":"12:23.910 ","End":"12:26.180","Text":"and now you have 4."},{"Start":"12:26.180 ","End":"12:34.990","Text":"This is what is called semi-conservative replication because only 1 strand is"},{"Start":"12:34.990 ","End":"12:39.875","Text":"actually a parental strand and the other one even though it\u0027s complimentary to the"},{"Start":"12:39.875 ","End":"12:45.575","Text":"parental and it results in an exact copy of the parental DNA,"},{"Start":"12:45.575 ","End":"12:47.025","Text":"it is not an actuality,"},{"Start":"12:47.025 ","End":"12:50.340","Text":"but parental DNA rather a split between the 2 parental strands."},{"Start":"12:50.340 ","End":"12:55.020","Text":"Meaning it isn\u0027t that you have now 2 DNA molecules and"},{"Start":"12:55.020 ","End":"13:00.265","Text":"1 is the parental and 1 is the copy."},{"Start":"13:00.265 ","End":"13:06.840","Text":"Rather, these are both made up of 1 parental and 1 copy."},{"Start":"13:06.840 ","End":"13:09.035","Text":"Hopefully that was clear."},{"Start":"13:09.035 ","End":"13:11.720","Text":"If either strand is damaged at anytime,"},{"Start":"13:11.720 ","End":"13:16.090","Text":"continuity of information is assured by the information presenting the other strand,"},{"Start":"13:16.090 ","End":"13:18.570","Text":"which can act as a template for repair of the damage."},{"Start":"13:18.570 ","End":"13:23.480","Text":"Meaning that if 1 strand is actually damaged,"},{"Start":"13:23.480 ","End":"13:26.680","Text":"you still have the other one that will result in"},{"Start":"13:26.680 ","End":"13:30.875","Text":"the exact sequence as the parental strand,"},{"Start":"13:30.875 ","End":"13:32.989","Text":"and this is why it\u0027s important."},{"Start":"13:32.989 ","End":"13:41.250","Text":"This is what helps our replication be accurate and assures fidelity."},{"Start":"13:41.250 ","End":"13:43.010","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"13:43.010 ","End":"13:47.490","Text":"you should now be able to comprehend the concept of DNA molecule fidelity and"},{"Start":"13:47.490 ","End":"13:49.995","Text":"understand the contribution of DNA structure to its ability"},{"Start":"13:49.995 ","End":"13:52.965","Text":"to replicate with near perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"13:52.965 ","End":"13:57.440","Text":"We covered this and the process and semi-conservative replication,"},{"Start":"13:57.440 ","End":"14:00.100","Text":"and we can jump into the exercises."}],"ID":27075},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 4","Duration":"1m 44s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26126,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.080 ","End":"00:06.265","Text":"We just covered the topic of the DNA molecule and we\u0027re jumping into an exercise."},{"Start":"00:06.265 ","End":"00:09.055","Text":"When the properties of chemical species is described,"},{"Start":"00:09.055 ","End":"00:10.510","Text":"typically the average behavior of"},{"Start":"00:10.510 ","End":"00:14.110","Text":"a very large number of identical molecules is actually represented."},{"Start":"00:14.110 ","End":"00:16.255","Text":"We mentioned an exception of this,"},{"Start":"00:16.255 ","End":"00:19.825","Text":"what is it and what examples did we mention to illustrate this?"},{"Start":"00:19.825 ","End":"00:23.845","Text":"The exception to this is cellular DNA."},{"Start":"00:23.845 ","End":"00:27.280","Text":"Cellular DNA has a sequence that will"},{"Start":"00:27.280 ","End":"00:31.660","Text":"be identical between different cells of the same organism."},{"Start":"00:31.660 ","End":"00:37.045","Text":"Therefore, it will not be a representation of the average,"},{"Start":"00:37.045 ","End":"00:43.490","Text":"rather it\u0027ll be representation of identical DNA molecules between"},{"Start":"00:43.490 ","End":"00:49.940","Text":"the different cells of the same organism and between organisms of the same species."},{"Start":"00:49.940 ","End":"00:54.055","Text":"Now the example we mentioned was of E coli."},{"Start":"00:54.055 ","End":"00:56.090","Text":"E coli\u0027s entire genetic material is in"},{"Start":"00:56.090 ","End":"01:00.830","Text":"a single DNA molecule containing 4.64 million nucleotide pairs."},{"Start":"01:00.830 ","End":"01:04.070","Text":"That single molecule must be replicated perfectly in"},{"Start":"01:04.070 ","End":"01:06.080","Text":"every detail in order for the E coli cell to"},{"Start":"01:06.080 ","End":"01:08.480","Text":"give rise to identical progeny by cell division."},{"Start":"01:08.480 ","End":"01:10.585","Text":"In the case of E coli,"},{"Start":"01:10.585 ","End":"01:14.300","Text":"prokaryote, the entire organism is 1 cell."},{"Start":"01:14.300 ","End":"01:18.995","Text":"This 1 cell when it\u0027s replicating and makes more bacteria,"},{"Start":"01:18.995 ","End":"01:25.345","Text":"it needs to replicate perfectly so that it gives rise identical progeny by cell division."},{"Start":"01:25.345 ","End":"01:29.495","Text":"There is no room for averaging in this process."},{"Start":"01:29.495 ","End":"01:35.735","Text":"No room for averaging in the process of replication."},{"Start":"01:35.735 ","End":"01:41.940","Text":"It needs to be precise and accurate."},{"Start":"01:42.350 ","End":"01:45.520","Text":"See you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27076},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 5","Duration":"58s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26127,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.900","Text":"We\u0027re back with another exercise within the topic of the DNA molecule."},{"Start":"00:03.900 ","End":"00:05.400","Text":"What else do we know?"},{"Start":"00:05.400 ","End":"00:10.065","Text":"What are the covalently linked subunits which encode the genetic message?"},{"Start":"00:10.065 ","End":"00:12.345","Text":"We talked about a linear chain,"},{"Start":"00:12.345 ","End":"00:14.310","Text":"that is the genetic material."},{"Start":"00:14.310 ","End":"00:20.385","Text":"If you remember, this will be DNA in the cases of humans and eukaryotes, etc."},{"Start":"00:20.385 ","End":"00:25.860","Text":"What are the covalently linked subunits in this genetic message?"},{"Start":"00:25.860 ","End":"00:28.830","Text":"Those will be nucleotides that are covalently"},{"Start":"00:28.830 ","End":"00:32.370","Text":"linked in a linear sequence to encode the genetic message,"},{"Start":"00:32.370 ","End":"00:33.890","Text":"and the nucleotides, as we see here,"},{"Start":"00:33.890 ","End":"00:35.885","Text":"these intragenic spaces are adenine,"},{"Start":"00:35.885 ","End":"00:38.240","Text":"thymine, guanine, and cytosine."},{"Start":"00:38.240 ","End":"00:41.675","Text":"These are composed of also a sugar and a phosphate backbone."},{"Start":"00:41.675 ","End":"00:47.520","Text":"You see the molecules here of each of the nucleotides."},{"Start":"00:48.130 ","End":"00:51.710","Text":"These covalently nucleotides in"},{"Start":"00:51.710 ","End":"00:56.150","Text":"a linear sequence are what compose and encode the genetic message."},{"Start":"00:56.150 ","End":"00:59.460","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to the next exercise."}],"ID":27077},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 6","Duration":"1m 51s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26128,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.595","Text":"What else do we know about the DNA molecule?"},{"Start":"00:02.595 ","End":"00:05.490","Text":"Part I, what specialized human cells carry"},{"Start":"00:05.490 ","End":"00:09.030","Text":"the hereditary information and transmit it to the next generations,"},{"Start":"00:09.030 ","End":"00:11.025","Text":"in the form of DNA molecules?"},{"Start":"00:11.025 ","End":"00:13.170","Text":"We said they\u0027re human cells."},{"Start":"00:13.170 ","End":"00:17.625","Text":"Mostly definitely they have 2 copies of each chromosome, each DNA molecule,"},{"Start":"00:17.625 ","End":"00:19.920","Text":"but which ones are specialized human cells that carry"},{"Start":"00:19.920 ","End":"00:23.190","Text":"the hereditary information transmitted to the next generations?"},{"Start":"00:23.190 ","End":"00:27.900","Text":"Well, that will be the human sperm or egg cells actually,"},{"Start":"00:27.900 ","End":"00:31.280","Text":"and which carry the hereditary information of"},{"Start":"00:31.280 ","End":"00:36.230","Text":"billions of years of evolution and transmit this inheritance in a form of DNA molecules."},{"Start":"00:36.230 ","End":"00:38.795","Text":"Is a sperm and egg."},{"Start":"00:38.795 ","End":"00:40.655","Text":"As you would see here,"},{"Start":"00:40.655 ","End":"00:45.890","Text":"the sperm represents the male contribution and egg represents"},{"Start":"00:45.890 ","End":"00:52.710","Text":"the female contribution to each haploid 1 copy of each chromosome."},{"Start":"00:52.710 ","End":"00:57.140","Text":"Part 2. What occurs when these 2 cells unite?"},{"Start":"00:57.140 ","End":"01:00.950","Text":"The result of this union is an embryo with all of its about"},{"Start":"01:00.950 ","End":"01:05.765","Text":"20,000 genes construct of 3 billion nucleotide pairs intact."},{"Start":"01:05.765 ","End":"01:10.640","Text":"Now you have this haploid 1 set of genes combining with"},{"Start":"01:10.640 ","End":"01:15.785","Text":"this haploid egg and together it becomes a diploid zygote,"},{"Start":"01:15.785 ","End":"01:25.235","Text":"an embryo composed of the genetic information carried on from the maternal, the egg,"},{"Start":"01:25.235 ","End":"01:27.110","Text":"from the mother, as well as"},{"Start":"01:27.110 ","End":"01:31.805","Text":"the genetic information carried on by the paternal homologue, the sperm,"},{"Start":"01:31.805 ","End":"01:38.060","Text":"the father that was constructed of 3 billion nucleotide pairs intact,"},{"Start":"01:38.060 ","End":"01:44.525","Text":"and that is what makes the human being and the combination from the genetic information,"},{"Start":"01:44.525 ","End":"01:48.710","Text":"the hereditary information from both contributing parents."},{"Start":"01:48.710 ","End":"01:52.170","Text":"We completed another exercise."}],"ID":27078},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 7","Duration":"4m 47s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26129,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.810","Text":"Welcome to another exercise within the topic of the DNA molecule."},{"Start":"00:04.810 ","End":"00:09.565","Text":"The structure of DNA allows its replication repair with near-perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"00:09.565 ","End":"00:11.830","Text":"Mention 2 factors that contribute to this,"},{"Start":"00:11.830 ","End":"00:15.745","Text":"as well as describe 2 aspects of the replication and its fidelity."},{"Start":"00:15.745 ","End":"00:20.480","Text":"Fidelity, that the replication is consistent and accurate over generations,"},{"Start":"00:20.480 ","End":"00:22.940","Text":"so mention 2 factors that contribute to this as well as"},{"Start":"00:22.940 ","End":"00:26.525","Text":"describe 2 aspects of the replication and its fidelity."},{"Start":"00:26.525 ","End":"00:31.090","Text":"DNA is a linear polymer of 4 different deoxyribonucleotides arranged in"},{"Start":"00:31.090 ","End":"00:35.305","Text":"a precise linear sequence that encodes the genetic information."},{"Start":"00:35.305 ","End":"00:42.675","Text":"This precise sequence is a contributing factor to maintaining this near-perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"00:42.675 ","End":"00:47.105","Text":"2 of these polymeric strands are twisted about each other to form the DNA double helix,"},{"Start":"00:47.105 ","End":"00:50.060","Text":"in which each deoxyribonucleotide in 1 strand pairs"},{"Start":"00:50.060 ","End":"00:53.975","Text":"specifically with a complementary deoxyribonucleotide in the opposite strand."},{"Start":"00:53.975 ","End":"00:58.945","Text":"The specific complementation of deoxyribonucleotides,"},{"Start":"00:58.945 ","End":"01:02.510","Text":"also contributes to this specificity and"},{"Start":"01:02.510 ","End":"01:06.485","Text":"accuracy because we know we said that A binds with T,"},{"Start":"01:06.485 ","End":"01:09.725","Text":"and G binds with C. Alternatively,"},{"Start":"01:09.725 ","End":"01:18.215","Text":"T binds with T and C binds with G. Meaning if you have a sequence that is of this order,"},{"Start":"01:18.215 ","End":"01:25.580","Text":"what will bind is the appropriate complement of a deoxyribonucleotide,"},{"Start":"01:25.580 ","End":"01:29.195","Text":"meaning that sequence will be maintained."},{"Start":"01:29.195 ","End":"01:32.340","Text":"Another factor is before a cell divides,"},{"Start":"01:32.340 ","End":"01:36.200","Text":"the 2 DNA strands separate and each serves as a template for synthesis of"},{"Start":"01:36.200 ","End":"01:40.310","Text":"a new complementary strand generating 2 identical double-helical molecules,"},{"Start":"01:40.310 ","End":"01:41.690","Text":"1 for each daughter cell,"},{"Start":"01:41.690 ","End":"01:47.190","Text":"which is composed of 1 parental strand and 1 complementary new strand."},{"Start":"01:47.190 ","End":"01:52.385","Text":"You will have a DNA strand that\u0027s split."},{"Start":"01:52.385 ","End":"01:55.080","Text":"You have now 1 parental strand,"},{"Start":"01:55.080 ","End":"02:01.470","Text":"then you get the second complementary strand, which is identical."},{"Start":"02:01.470 ","End":"02:05.775","Text":"Therefore, now you have 2 identical strands."},{"Start":"02:05.775 ","End":"02:09.025","Text":"If either strand is damaged at any time,"},{"Start":"02:09.025 ","End":"02:13.670","Text":"continuity of information is assured by the information present in the other strand,"},{"Start":"02:13.670 ","End":"02:17.165","Text":"which can act as a template for repair of the damage."},{"Start":"02:17.165 ","End":"02:19.625","Text":"If you had 1 strand,"},{"Start":"02:19.625 ","End":"02:22.280","Text":"let\u0027s say this is what it should be,"},{"Start":"02:22.280 ","End":"02:26.210","Text":"and you have 1 strand that somehow had a mutation,"},{"Start":"02:26.210 ","End":"02:29.180","Text":"now when you have a second strand made here,"},{"Start":"02:29.180 ","End":"02:37.640","Text":"you will have one that has the mutation and is therefore incorrect."},{"Start":"02:37.640 ","End":"02:40.325","Text":"It\u0027s a mutant, but you still have"},{"Start":"02:40.325 ","End":"02:45.760","Text":"this one that is exactly the same as the parental strand."},{"Start":"02:45.760 ","End":"02:48.210","Text":"If something is off,"},{"Start":"02:48.210 ","End":"02:54.890","Text":"this will end up being degraded because they won\u0027t bind well or it won\u0027t be correct."},{"Start":"02:54.890 ","End":"02:59.960","Text":"Even though there may be damage or something here is wrong,"},{"Start":"02:59.960 ","End":"03:03.200","Text":"that it became bulky or whatnot,"},{"Start":"03:03.200 ","End":"03:07.910","Text":"continuity is assured because the information is present in the other strand."},{"Start":"03:07.910 ","End":"03:10.880","Text":"This will act as a template to repair"},{"Start":"03:10.880 ","End":"03:14.570","Text":"the damage so that now this can split and be another template."},{"Start":"03:14.570 ","End":"03:18.440","Text":"Just to remember, what we have here is the parental molecule."},{"Start":"03:18.440 ","End":"03:20.350","Text":"It splits."},{"Start":"03:20.350 ","End":"03:25.950","Text":"It separates into 2 templates apart from each other."},{"Start":"03:25.950 ","End":"03:30.410","Text":"Now enzymes can fit in this gap here and bring"},{"Start":"03:30.410 ","End":"03:35.690","Text":"nucleotides that complement to the deoxyribonucleotides in the templates."},{"Start":"03:35.690 ","End":"03:37.370","Text":"If you have an A will bring a T,"},{"Start":"03:37.370 ","End":"03:40.175","Text":"a C will bring a G, etc, and the same for here."},{"Start":"03:40.175 ","End":"03:42.330","Text":"You have T, it will bring in A,"},{"Start":"03:42.330 ","End":"03:44.840","Text":"it will bring a C and what you get is"},{"Start":"03:44.840 ","End":"03:48.320","Text":"formation of new strands complementary to the template strands."},{"Start":"03:48.320 ","End":"03:49.550","Text":"You have a template strand,"},{"Start":"03:49.550 ","End":"03:52.615","Text":"also the parental strand."},{"Start":"03:52.615 ","End":"03:57.380","Text":"First replication will have a parental strand as well"},{"Start":"03:57.380 ","End":"04:03.964","Text":"as a complementary copy of the parental strand."},{"Start":"04:03.964 ","End":"04:05.810","Text":"Then when you split that,"},{"Start":"04:05.810 ","End":"04:10.385","Text":"you will have here a copy strand that will serve as template,"},{"Start":"04:10.385 ","End":"04:19.040","Text":"as well as here and you will have a parental strand that serves as template."},{"Start":"04:19.040 ","End":"04:27.270","Text":"These both serve as templates and now you\u0027re getting a new progeny second strand."},{"Start":"04:27.270 ","End":"04:31.265","Text":"This one is the new strand in this generation."},{"Start":"04:31.265 ","End":"04:34.205","Text":"You have parental molecule, it separates."},{"Start":"04:34.205 ","End":"04:40.160","Text":"Each one acts as a template and then you result in 2 identical molecules here."},{"Start":"04:40.160 ","End":"04:42.920","Text":"You result in 4 identical molecules."},{"Start":"04:42.920 ","End":"04:45.740","Text":"That is the process of precise,"},{"Start":"04:45.740 ","End":"04:48.750","Text":"accurate replication of DNA."}],"ID":27079},{"Watched":false,"Name":"From Linearity of DNA to Three dimensional Proteins","Duration":"8m 34s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26130,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.345","Text":"Hi there. While we\u0027re still on the topic of Genetic Foundation,"},{"Start":"00:03.345 ","End":"00:09.300","Text":"we will now cover from linearity of DNA to 3-dimensional proteins."},{"Start":"00:09.300 ","End":"00:10.500","Text":"By the end of this section,"},{"Start":"00:10.500 ","End":"00:15.330","Text":"you will be able to describe the 2 phases for this change from 1-3 dimensions and"},{"Start":"00:15.330 ","End":"00:17.490","Text":"understand additional factors that contribute to"},{"Start":"00:17.490 ","End":"00:20.625","Text":"the 3-dimensional arrangement of proteins and their complexes."},{"Start":"00:20.625 ","End":"00:22.650","Text":"The information in DNA is encoded in"},{"Start":"00:22.650 ","End":"00:28.485","Text":"its linear 1-dimensional sequence of deoxyribonucleotide units."},{"Start":"00:28.485 ","End":"00:33.360","Text":"Its expression results in a 3-dimensional cell."},{"Start":"00:33.360 ","End":"00:39.225","Text":"We have this 1-dimensional sequence of 1 strand,"},{"Start":"00:39.225 ","End":"00:42.810","Text":"and yet it results in a 3-dimensional cell."},{"Start":"00:42.810 ","End":"00:46.940","Text":"The change from 1-3 dimensions occurs in 2 phases."},{"Start":"00:46.940 ","End":"00:52.565","Text":"A linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides codes through an intermediary RNA"},{"Start":"00:52.565 ","End":"00:58.730","Text":"for the production of protein with a corresponding linear sequence of amino acids."},{"Start":"00:58.730 ","End":"01:02.945","Text":"You have a linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides,"},{"Start":"01:02.945 ","End":"01:08.570","Text":"and these are changed into an intermediary RNA,"},{"Start":"01:08.570 ","End":"01:17.465","Text":"also in this linear sequence and then that leads to the production of a protein."},{"Start":"01:17.465 ","End":"01:24.335","Text":"You have DNA template strand transcription which results in a linear mRNA,"},{"Start":"01:24.335 ","End":"01:28.445","Text":"which is then translated and results in protein"},{"Start":"01:28.445 ","End":"01:33.060","Text":"that has a linear sequence of amino acids,"},{"Start":"01:33.060 ","End":"01:37.070","Text":"and these are 4 different amino acids that are coded"},{"Start":"01:37.070 ","End":"01:42.990","Text":"by the mRNA that is based on the DNA."},{"Start":"01:42.990 ","End":"01:44.855","Text":"You have the DNA molecule,"},{"Start":"01:44.855 ","End":"01:46.655","Text":"it\u0027s made into mRNA and protein."},{"Start":"01:46.655 ","End":"01:48.770","Text":"That is what is also called"},{"Start":"01:48.770 ","End":"01:56.105","Text":"the central dogma in biology and genetics with regard to expression in the cell."},{"Start":"01:56.105 ","End":"02:05.315","Text":"It used to be believed that it\u0027s only 1 way and then it goes DNA to RNA, to protein."},{"Start":"02:05.315 ","End":"02:09.620","Text":"Later it was discovered that there are retroviruses and stuff like that, that they have,"},{"Start":"02:09.620 ","End":"02:13.735","Text":"and enzyme reverse transcriptase that can actually change RNA to DNA,"},{"Start":"02:13.735 ","End":"02:16.985","Text":"but originally the central dogma,"},{"Start":"02:16.985 ","End":"02:22.245","Text":"what we knew was DNA to RNA to protein."},{"Start":"02:22.245 ","End":"02:25.790","Text":"The change from 1-3 dimensional occurs in 2 phases."},{"Start":"02:25.790 ","End":"02:28.430","Text":"The first phase is the linear sequence of"},{"Start":"02:28.430 ","End":"02:32.975","Text":"deoxyribonucleotides are then through an intermediary,"},{"Start":"02:32.975 ","End":"02:36.500","Text":"which is the linear RNA used to"},{"Start":"02:36.500 ","End":"02:40.520","Text":"produce protein by a corresponding linear sequence of amino acids."},{"Start":"02:40.520 ","End":"02:45.515","Text":"The second phase is the protein folds into a 3-dimensional shape."},{"Start":"02:45.515 ","End":"02:51.290","Text":"The protein folds the sequence of amino acids folds determined by"},{"Start":"02:51.290 ","End":"02:57.815","Text":"its amino acid sequence and stabilize primarily by non-covalent interactions."},{"Start":"02:57.815 ","End":"03:00.185","Text":"We talked about these types of bonds in a different section."},{"Start":"03:00.185 ","End":"03:01.415","Text":"We\u0027ll go into it more,"},{"Start":"03:01.415 ","End":"03:06.065","Text":"but basically you\u0027ll have the sequence of amino acids as you see here."},{"Start":"03:06.065 ","End":"03:10.010","Text":"Then they will fold because of"},{"Start":"03:10.010 ","End":"03:16.070","Text":"these interactions between the different amino acids, these non-covalent interactions."},{"Start":"03:16.070 ","End":"03:18.605","Text":"What you see here is a fold and you have"},{"Start":"03:18.605 ","End":"03:22.250","Text":"a bond between an amino acid here and amino acid here."},{"Start":"03:22.250 ","End":"03:28.520","Text":"The bond is between the oxygen of this amino acid and the amine NH_3,"},{"Start":"03:28.520 ","End":"03:34.700","Text":"the amine of this amino acid so this ionic bond creates this loop, this fold."},{"Start":"03:34.700 ","End":"03:40.490","Text":"Then you have this right here and it\u0027s stated as a hydrophobic interaction,"},{"Start":"03:40.490 ","End":"03:44.045","Text":"meaning that it doesn\u0027t like water,"},{"Start":"03:44.045 ","End":"03:47.015","Text":"some aqueous solution, for example, in a cell,"},{"Start":"03:47.015 ","End":"03:54.680","Text":"the cytoplasm is something that will be repelled by this,"},{"Start":"03:54.680 ","End":"03:58.085","Text":"meaning it will try to avoid it and in order to avoid it,"},{"Start":"03:58.085 ","End":"04:05.080","Text":"it will fold this way to eliminate the option of cytoplasm entering."},{"Start":"04:05.080 ","End":"04:09.620","Text":"Here there\u0027s another example of a different bond, hydrogen bond."},{"Start":"04:09.620 ","End":"04:12.380","Text":"I\u0027m not asking you to memorize these bonds now, but just showing,"},{"Start":"04:12.380 ","End":"04:15.650","Text":"and this again is between 2 amino acids."},{"Start":"04:15.650 ","End":"04:17.300","Text":"You have the oxygen here,"},{"Start":"04:17.300 ","End":"04:18.630","Text":"and the hydrogen here,"},{"Start":"04:18.630 ","End":"04:22.190","Text":"we will talk about those bonds in the next chapter where"},{"Start":"04:22.190 ","End":"04:26.300","Text":"we\u0027ll cover water and such non-covalent bonds."},{"Start":"04:26.300 ","End":"04:31.640","Text":"You have this folding as a result of different non-covalent bonds."},{"Start":"04:31.640 ","End":"04:33.860","Text":"There\u0027s also a disulfide bond."},{"Start":"04:33.860 ","End":"04:35.690","Text":"2 sulfides can link together,"},{"Start":"04:35.690 ","End":"04:37.175","Text":"it\u0027s called a disulfide bond,"},{"Start":"04:37.175 ","End":"04:42.155","Text":"and this is what leads to the folding and somewhat stabilizes it."},{"Start":"04:42.155 ","End":"04:44.240","Text":"A protein\u0027s native conformation it\u0027s"},{"Start":"04:44.240 ","End":"04:47.840","Text":"precise 3-dimensional structure is crucial for its function."},{"Start":"04:47.840 ","End":"04:52.580","Text":"This folding is what actually defines in a way,"},{"Start":"04:52.580 ","End":"04:54.710","Text":"its function and signifies it."},{"Start":"04:54.710 ","End":"04:57.770","Text":"Native conformation and accurate folding of proteins is defined by"},{"Start":"04:57.770 ","End":"05:01.295","Text":"its sequence yet affected by the cellular environment as well."},{"Start":"05:01.295 ","End":"05:04.935","Text":"For example, pH, metal ion concentrations, etc,"},{"Start":"05:04.935 ","End":"05:09.095","Text":"because this can affect the way things are folding and the interactions."},{"Start":"05:09.095 ","End":"05:11.870","Text":"Again, proteins have a native conformation."},{"Start":"05:11.870 ","End":"05:14.615","Text":"It\u0027s precise 3-dimensional structure is crucial for its function"},{"Start":"05:14.615 ","End":"05:17.810","Text":"and its native conformation is accurate,"},{"Start":"05:17.810 ","End":"05:20.345","Text":"but not only defined by its sequence,"},{"Start":"05:20.345 ","End":"05:23.030","Text":"also by the cellular environment."},{"Start":"05:23.030 ","End":"05:25.640","Text":"Proteins in their native conformation will associate"},{"Start":"05:25.640 ","End":"05:29.390","Text":"non-covalently with other macromolecules, proteins,"},{"Start":"05:29.390 ","End":"05:31.480","Text":"nucleic acids or lipids,"},{"Start":"05:31.480 ","End":"05:35.239","Text":"and these will form supramolecular complexes such as chromosomes,"},{"Start":"05:35.239 ","End":"05:37.220","Text":"ribosomes, and membranes."},{"Start":"05:37.220 ","End":"05:44.955","Text":"You have a ribosome and it\u0027s made up of 2 large subunits."},{"Start":"05:44.955 ","End":"05:47.370","Text":"These are 2 separate proteins."},{"Start":"05:47.370 ","End":"05:49.245","Text":"You have 1 and 2."},{"Start":"05:49.245 ","End":"05:53.510","Text":"You have the ribosome margin and the ribosome small unit."},{"Start":"05:53.510 ","End":"05:57.650","Text":"Then you also have tRNAs that are incorporated into it,"},{"Start":"05:57.650 ","End":"06:00.940","Text":"and then you have mRNA that goes into it."},{"Start":"06:00.940 ","End":"06:02.255","Text":"This is an example,"},{"Start":"06:02.255 ","End":"06:05.750","Text":"this ribosome of a supramolecular complex."},{"Start":"06:05.750 ","End":"06:07.250","Text":"It\u0027s made of a protein,"},{"Start":"06:07.250 ","End":"06:09.290","Text":"it\u0027s made up of RNA,"},{"Start":"06:09.290 ","End":"06:13.240","Text":"which are basically nucleic acids, and tRNA."},{"Start":"06:13.240 ","End":"06:17.270","Text":"Again, proteins in their native conformation associate non-covalently"},{"Start":"06:17.270 ","End":"06:21.035","Text":"with other macromolecules and form supramolecular complexes."},{"Start":"06:21.035 ","End":"06:23.720","Text":"Now the individual molecules of these complexes have"},{"Start":"06:23.720 ","End":"06:26.885","Text":"specific high affinity binding sites for each other,"},{"Start":"06:26.885 ","End":"06:32.990","Text":"allowing them to spontaneously self-assemble into functional complexes in the cell."},{"Start":"06:32.990 ","End":"06:35.420","Text":"Again, these individual molecules of"},{"Start":"06:35.420 ","End":"06:39.780","Text":"these complexes has specific high affinity binding sites for each other."},{"Start":"06:39.780 ","End":"06:43.685","Text":"They have sites that allow this binding to occur,"},{"Start":"06:43.685 ","End":"06:45.980","Text":"and this allows them to spontaneously"},{"Start":"06:45.980 ","End":"06:49.265","Text":"self-assemble into functional complexes in the cell."},{"Start":"06:49.265 ","End":"06:54.965","Text":"This is another visualization of a ribosome. I love this one."},{"Start":"06:54.965 ","End":"06:59.990","Text":"You have the large sub-unit, the small sub-unit,"},{"Start":"06:59.990 ","End":"07:08.090","Text":"the mRNA, and these colorful things in here are the tRNAs."},{"Start":"07:08.090 ","End":"07:14.760","Text":"We will learn about all these things in more detail in our later chapter."},{"Start":"07:14.810 ","End":"07:19.340","Text":"Self-assembly of supramolecules is affected similarly"},{"Start":"07:19.340 ","End":"07:23.525","Text":"to native conformation of the protein by the cellular environment."},{"Start":"07:23.525 ","End":"07:28.325","Text":"Therefore, DNA sequence alone is not sufficient to form and maintain"},{"Start":"07:28.325 ","End":"07:31.490","Text":"a fully functioning cell meaning other things"},{"Start":"07:31.490 ","End":"07:37.085","Text":"contribute to the form and the functioning of the cell."},{"Start":"07:37.085 ","End":"07:43.310","Text":"We basically have a linear form of DNA that goes through an intermediary,"},{"Start":"07:43.310 ","End":"07:51.140","Text":"linear mRNA that then goes into a linear protein sequence of"},{"Start":"07:51.140 ","End":"08:00.980","Text":"amino acids that then folds with non-covalent bonds that causes folding to occur."},{"Start":"08:00.980 ","End":"08:06.785","Text":"It has these non-covalent bonds and the cell environment"},{"Start":"08:06.785 ","End":"08:15.170","Text":"that affects this 3-dimensional folding and structure of the protein."},{"Start":"08:15.170 ","End":"08:21.055","Text":"This is Phase 1 and this is Phase 2."},{"Start":"08:21.055 ","End":"08:25.445","Text":"At this point, you should be able to describe the 2 phases for this chain from"},{"Start":"08:25.445 ","End":"08:28.610","Text":"1-3 dimensions and understand additional factors that"},{"Start":"08:28.610 ","End":"08:32.075","Text":"contribute to the 3-dimensional arrangement of proteins and their complexes."},{"Start":"08:32.075 ","End":"08:35.640","Text":"Let\u0027s go into some exercises."}],"ID":27080},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 8","Duration":"2m 20s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26131,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.020 ","End":"00:08.160","Text":"Hi, there. We are carrying the topic of linearity of DNA to 3-dimensional proteins,"},{"Start":"00:08.160 ","End":"00:11.655","Text":"in the section of Genetic Foundation."},{"Start":"00:11.655 ","End":"00:14.010","Text":"State the 2 phases in which the change from"},{"Start":"00:14.010 ","End":"00:17.550","Text":"1-dimensional DNA to 3-dimensioned proteins occur."},{"Start":"00:17.550 ","End":"00:19.050","Text":"The first phase, 1,"},{"Start":"00:19.050 ","End":"00:24.300","Text":"a linear sequence of deoxyribonucleotides codes through an intermediary RNA,"},{"Start":"00:24.300 ","End":"00:25.980","Text":"for the production of protein,"},{"Start":"00:25.980 ","End":"00:28.950","Text":"with a corresponding linear sequence of amino acids."},{"Start":"00:28.950 ","End":"00:30.975","Text":"We have a linear DNA,"},{"Start":"00:30.975 ","End":"00:34.745","Text":"it\u0027s a sequence of deoxyribonucleotides,"},{"Start":"00:34.745 ","End":"00:39.155","Text":"that is then converted by transcription to RNA,"},{"Start":"00:39.155 ","End":"00:41.510","Text":"and specifically mRNA,"},{"Start":"00:41.510 ","End":"00:46.750","Text":"which is now a sequence of ribonucleotides."},{"Start":"00:46.750 ","End":"00:53.975","Text":"Then this is converted through translation to a sequence of amino acids,"},{"Start":"00:53.975 ","End":"00:57.845","Text":"that is what codes for the protein."},{"Start":"00:57.845 ","End":"01:01.100","Text":"These are all linear,"},{"Start":"01:01.100 ","End":"01:05.270","Text":"and it is within the first phase."},{"Start":"01:05.270 ","End":"01:07.505","Text":"Next, what we have is,"},{"Start":"01:07.505 ","End":"01:11.470","Text":"the folding of a protein into a 3-dimensional shape."},{"Start":"01:11.470 ","End":"01:13.660","Text":"This is determined by its sequence,"},{"Start":"01:13.660 ","End":"01:17.305","Text":"and stabilized primarily by non-covalent interactions."},{"Start":"01:17.305 ","End":"01:19.640","Text":"Though remember, it\u0027s also affected by the environment."},{"Start":"01:19.640 ","End":"01:24.050","Text":"You have this sequence of amino acids: glycine, glutamine."},{"Start":"01:24.050 ","End":"01:25.490","Text":"These are all amino acids."},{"Start":"01:25.490 ","End":"01:30.370","Text":"They associate in fold because of non-covalent bonds."},{"Start":"01:30.370 ","End":"01:32.660","Text":"You have ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds,"},{"Start":"01:32.660 ","End":"01:36.545","Text":"disulfide bonds, etc, hydrophobic interactions."},{"Start":"01:36.545 ","End":"01:40.580","Text":"These cause this folding and stabilize them,"},{"Start":"01:40.580 ","End":"01:44.570","Text":"and that is what forms this 3-dimensional shape of the protein,"},{"Start":"01:44.570 ","End":"01:48.060","Text":"which is what contributes to its function."},{"Start":"01:48.060 ","End":"01:52.910","Text":"Is also affected by the environment in the cell,"},{"Start":"01:52.910 ","End":"01:54.500","Text":"for example, pH,"},{"Start":"01:54.500 ","End":"01:57.980","Text":"concentration of ions, et cetera. There you have it."},{"Start":"01:57.980 ","End":"02:01.740","Text":"You have a 2 phases of the change,"},{"Start":"02:01.740 ","End":"02:05.840","Text":"from 1-dimensional DNA to 3-dimensioned protein."},{"Start":"02:05.840 ","End":"02:09.440","Text":"You have linear DNA that goes to RNA that becomes protein,"},{"Start":"02:09.440 ","End":"02:11.540","Text":"through transcription and translation and then,"},{"Start":"02:11.540 ","End":"02:16.835","Text":"the folding of this protein in the cellular environment."},{"Start":"02:16.835 ","End":"02:19.640","Text":"Let\u0027s see you in the next exercise."}],"ID":27081},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 9","Duration":"1m 36s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26132,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.470","Text":"Hi there. We\u0027re back with an exercise covering the topic of linearity of"},{"Start":"00:04.470 ","End":"00:09.375","Text":"DNA to 3-dimensional proteins within Genetic Foundation."},{"Start":"00:09.375 ","End":"00:15.015","Text":"Let\u0027s start. Mention 2 facts about a protein\u0027s native conformation."},{"Start":"00:15.015 ","End":"00:17.825","Text":"Well, a protein\u0027s native conformation,"},{"Start":"00:17.825 ","End":"00:23.030","Text":"its precise 3-dimensional structure is crucial for its function."},{"Start":"00:23.030 ","End":"00:25.280","Text":"Again, a protein\u0027s native conformation,"},{"Start":"00:25.280 ","End":"00:33.125","Text":"its 3-dimensional structure, the precise 3D structure is crucial for its function."},{"Start":"00:33.125 ","End":"00:37.610","Text":"Another fact, native conformation and accurate folding of proteins is"},{"Start":"00:37.610 ","End":"00:42.305","Text":"defined by its sequence and is affected by the cellular environment as well."},{"Start":"00:42.305 ","End":"00:49.160","Text":"Because the sequence is what defines the folding and non-covalent interactions between"},{"Start":"00:49.160 ","End":"00:51.980","Text":"the amino acids at the different locations on"},{"Start":"00:51.980 ","End":"00:57.740","Text":"the linear sequence and thus yielding and stabilizing the 3D sequence."},{"Start":"00:57.740 ","End":"01:02.730","Text":"This is also affected by the cellular environment."},{"Start":"01:02.730 ","End":"01:07.695","Text":"It\u0027s defined by the amino acid sequence and the environment."},{"Start":"01:07.695 ","End":"01:11.435","Text":"Proteins in their native conformation will associate noncovalently with"},{"Start":"01:11.435 ","End":"01:15.520","Text":"other macromolecules to form supramolecular complexes."},{"Start":"01:15.520 ","End":"01:18.349","Text":"Another fact that we know about protein\u0027s native conformation"},{"Start":"01:18.349 ","End":"01:21.545","Text":"is that when they\u0027re in their native functional conformation,"},{"Start":"01:21.545 ","End":"01:26.000","Text":"they can associate appropriately with other macromolecules in"},{"Start":"01:26.000 ","End":"01:28.250","Text":"a noncovalent fashion and form"},{"Start":"01:28.250 ","End":"01:33.010","Text":"supramolecular complexes that can be functional like ribosomes."},{"Start":"01:33.010 ","End":"01:35.090","Text":"With that, we\u0027ve completed this exercise."},{"Start":"01:35.090 ","End":"01:37.590","Text":"Let\u0027s go into the next exercise."}],"ID":27082},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 10","Duration":"1m 5s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26120,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":250138,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:04.140","Text":"Hi, there. We\u0027re back with an exercise on the topic within"},{"Start":"00:04.140 ","End":"00:06.300","Text":"genetic foundation covering from"},{"Start":"00:06.300 ","End":"00:09.525","Text":"the linearity of DNA to 3-dimensional proteins. Let\u0027s dive in."},{"Start":"00:09.525 ","End":"00:16.060","Text":"What affects both native conformation of proteins and self-assembly of supramolecules?"},{"Start":"00:16.700 ","End":"00:19.200","Text":"I\u0027m sure you\u0027ve got this one."},{"Start":"00:19.200 ","End":"00:22.875","Text":"I had touched up on it on previous exercises."},{"Start":"00:22.875 ","End":"00:25.980","Text":"Both are affected by the cellular environment,"},{"Start":"00:25.980 ","End":"00:29.205","Text":"such as pH, metal ion concentrations, etc.,"},{"Start":"00:29.205 ","End":"00:31.880","Text":"which in essence means that it contributes along with"},{"Start":"00:31.880 ","End":"00:36.950","Text":"the DNA sequence to maintain cell continuity and function."},{"Start":"00:36.950 ","End":"00:40.760","Text":"Native conformation of proteins and self-assembly of"},{"Start":"00:40.760 ","End":"00:45.709","Text":"supramolecules as the ribosome that we gave an example,"},{"Start":"00:45.709 ","End":"00:51.565","Text":"are affected by the cellular environment along with the DNA sequence."},{"Start":"00:51.565 ","End":"00:55.415","Text":"These are important to maintain cell continuity and function."},{"Start":"00:55.415 ","End":"00:57.950","Text":"As mentioned, aside from ribosomes,"},{"Start":"00:57.950 ","End":"01:02.885","Text":"we also have chromosomes and membranes, which are supramolecules."},{"Start":"01:02.885 ","End":"01:06.120","Text":"That was easy enough. That\u0027s all, folks."}],"ID":27083}],"Thumbnail":null,"ID":250138},{"Name":"Evolutionary Foundation","TopicPlaylistFirstVideoID":0,"Duration":null,"Videos":[{"Watched":false,"Name":"Intro to evolutionary foundation","Duration":"7m 8s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26264,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.512","Text":"We\u0027ve talked about this a little bit, touched up on it,"},{"Start":"00:03.512 ","End":"00:06.750","Text":"and now we\u0027re actually going to expand on the topic of"},{"Start":"00:06.750 ","End":"00:10.275","Text":"the Evolutionary Foundation and more specifically,"},{"Start":"00:10.275 ","End":"00:12.330","Text":"the Introduction to Evolutionary Foundation"},{"Start":"00:12.330 ","End":"00:14.490","Text":"where we will cover these topics so that you will be able"},{"Start":"00:14.490 ","End":"00:19.020","Text":"to explain the idea of evolution and list factors that support the concept of evolution."},{"Start":"00:19.020 ","End":"00:22.650","Text":"There\u0027s notable similarity of gene sequences in metabolic pathways"},{"Start":"00:22.650 ","End":"00:26.291","Text":"as mentioned in previous sections between the 3 domains of life as you see here,"},{"Start":"00:26.291 ","End":"00:28.005","Text":"Eukarya, archaea and bacteria."},{"Start":"00:28.005 ","End":"00:30.840","Text":"This indicates strongly the all modern organisms are"},{"Start":"00:30.840 ","End":"00:33.795","Text":"derived from a common evolutionary ancestor, a progenitor."},{"Start":"00:33.795 ","End":"00:37.650","Text":"When we\u0027re looking all these organisms, all these species,"},{"Start":"00:37.650 ","End":"00:42.500","Text":"they come together and link up here which is"},{"Start":"00:42.500 ","End":"00:48.039","Text":"probably where the common evolutionary ancestors, the progenitor."},{"Start":"00:48.039 ","End":"00:51.380","Text":"Small mutations changes that confer"},{"Start":"00:51.380 ","End":"00:54.890","Text":"a selective advantage to the organism in some ecological niche,"},{"Start":"00:54.890 ","End":"00:58.700","Text":"in some environment resulted in speciation and this is"},{"Start":"00:58.700 ","End":"01:01.490","Text":"basically when there are different species that"},{"Start":"01:01.490 ","End":"01:04.990","Text":"result in the plethora and variety of modern organisms."},{"Start":"01:04.990 ","End":"01:07.055","Text":"These result in speciation,"},{"Start":"01:07.055 ","End":"01:09.030","Text":"the plethora of variety of modern organisms."},{"Start":"01:09.030 ","End":"01:11.585","Text":"When you look at this whole group right here,"},{"Start":"01:11.585 ","End":"01:15.380","Text":"butterflies, moth, they come from some common ancestor,"},{"Start":"01:15.380 ","End":"01:16.730","Text":"but they\u0027ve evolved to have"},{"Start":"01:16.730 ","End":"01:20.480","Text":"small differences according to their niche, to their environment,"},{"Start":"01:20.480 ","End":"01:22.970","Text":"so they can evade predators and"},{"Start":"01:22.970 ","End":"01:26.435","Text":"survive their environment better and if we\u0027re looking at the caterpillars,"},{"Start":"01:26.435 ","End":"01:27.695","Text":"you can see here clearly,"},{"Start":"01:27.695 ","End":"01:30.860","Text":"this caterpillar lives on green plants,"},{"Start":"01:30.860 ","End":"01:33.500","Text":"green stems so it is green so that it"},{"Start":"01:33.500 ","End":"01:37.910","Text":"can basically blend in and not be obvious for predators,"},{"Start":"01:37.910 ","End":"01:42.515","Text":"while this one is in the color of branches because it is on brown branches."},{"Start":"01:42.515 ","End":"01:44.390","Text":"We have the speciation."},{"Start":"01:44.390 ","End":"01:48.560","Text":"Very similar organisms that had some mutations,"},{"Start":"01:48.560 ","End":"01:51.035","Text":"some change that resulted in, for example,"},{"Start":"01:51.035 ","End":"01:56.705","Text":"this one becoming from brown or green or vice versa and being that in this niche,"},{"Start":"01:56.705 ","End":"01:57.905","Text":"it\u0027s on green plants,"},{"Start":"01:57.905 ","End":"02:00.635","Text":"it survived better than the brown."},{"Start":"02:00.635 ","End":"02:02.285","Text":"Let\u0027s start from the beginning."},{"Start":"02:02.285 ","End":"02:05.625","Text":"Earth was formed about 4.67 billion years ago."},{"Start":"02:05.625 ","End":"02:09.740","Text":"In 1996, scientists working in Greenland found chemical evidence of light"},{"Start":"02:09.740 ","End":"02:14.345","Text":"from as far back as 3.85 billion years ago."},{"Start":"02:14.345 ","End":"02:17.330","Text":"This is a little short of a 4.6,"},{"Start":"02:17.330 ","End":"02:19.775","Text":"a little longer than the 3.5."},{"Start":"02:19.775 ","End":"02:23.285","Text":"What they found is evidence, fossil molecules,"},{"Start":"02:23.285 ","End":"02:26.240","Text":"and these are forms of carbon embedded in rock that seems to have"},{"Start":"02:26.240 ","End":"02:30.010","Text":"distinctly biological origin like"},{"Start":"02:30.010 ","End":"02:33.845","Text":"a rock that you see some shape of an organism or a skeleton in it."},{"Start":"02:33.845 ","End":"02:37.460","Text":"For example, a leaf that is in the rock."},{"Start":"02:37.460 ","End":"02:40.760","Text":"You see this shape in the rock."},{"Start":"02:40.760 ","End":"02:45.110","Text":"This is fossil evidence that was found from approximately"},{"Start":"02:45.110 ","End":"02:50.220","Text":"3.85 billion years ago in Greenland."},{"Start":"02:50.220 ","End":"02:54.860","Text":"Now the first simple organism arose during earth\u0027s first billion years,"},{"Start":"02:54.860 ","End":"02:59.180","Text":"so we say earth was formed 4.6 and the first evidence, 3.5."},{"Start":"02:59.180 ","End":"03:05.895","Text":"We established the first organism arose during earth\u0027s first billion years."},{"Start":"03:05.895 ","End":"03:09.080","Text":"Again, we said earth was formed 4.6 million years ago and"},{"Start":"03:09.080 ","End":"03:12.485","Text":"the first evidence of what we would call life is from a billion years later."},{"Start":"03:12.485 ","End":"03:20.075","Text":"This first organism had the ability to replicate its own structure from a template,"},{"Start":"03:20.075 ","End":"03:23.960","Text":"that in essence was the first genetic material, possibly RNA."},{"Start":"03:23.960 ","End":"03:26.130","Text":"We don\u0027t really know."},{"Start":"03:26.130 ","End":"03:29.630","Text":"Let\u0027s explain this in broad terms using definitions we"},{"Start":"03:29.630 ","End":"03:33.214","Text":"are already familiar with, organic compounds."},{"Start":"03:33.214 ","End":"03:36.215","Text":"Organic compounds on earth formed by natural processes."},{"Start":"03:36.215 ","End":"03:40.445","Text":"These were stable, considering earth\u0027s atmosphere was nearly devoid of oxygen."},{"Start":"03:40.445 ","End":"03:41.990","Text":"There were limited possibilities of"},{"Start":"03:41.990 ","End":"03:45.402","Text":"chemical reactions and very few microorganisms existed,"},{"Start":"03:45.402 ","End":"03:49.445","Text":"thus, there were few to scavenge these compounds."},{"Start":"03:49.445 ","End":"03:53.240","Text":"They were abundant and stable."},{"Start":"03:53.240 ","End":"03:58.190","Text":"Lipid vesicles containing organic compounds and self-replicating RNA gave rise to"},{"Start":"03:58.190 ","End":"04:02.975","Text":"the first cells which are also called protocells."},{"Start":"04:02.975 ","End":"04:06.110","Text":"Just to clarify, this is just an illustration."},{"Start":"04:06.110 ","End":"04:09.470","Text":"What we see here is a paramecium."},{"Start":"04:09.470 ","End":"04:11.120","Text":"It\u0027s just an illustration of a cell."},{"Start":"04:11.120 ","End":"04:13.625","Text":"This is not the actual first cell."},{"Start":"04:13.625 ","End":"04:20.090","Text":"These protocells with the greatest capacity for self-replication became more abundant."},{"Start":"04:20.090 ","End":"04:23.600","Text":"Those that were able to replicate the best are"},{"Start":"04:23.600 ","End":"04:27.605","Text":"the ones that became the most abundant evolution."},{"Start":"04:27.605 ","End":"04:30.230","Text":"Evolution means change over time."},{"Start":"04:30.230 ","End":"04:32.570","Text":"The dictionary definition of evolution is"},{"Start":"04:32.570 ","End":"04:35.240","Text":"gradual change or gradual development of something,"},{"Start":"04:35.240 ","End":"04:38.090","Text":"especially from a simple to a more complex form."},{"Start":"04:38.090 ","End":"04:41.000","Text":"This term can be used for anything that has changed over time, for example,"},{"Start":"04:41.000 ","End":"04:44.150","Text":"evolution of phones or storage devices so if you"},{"Start":"04:44.150 ","End":"04:47.840","Text":"see from the simple phone as we went to the rotary phone,"},{"Start":"04:47.840 ","End":"04:49.850","Text":"to a cordless phone,"},{"Start":"04:49.850 ","End":"04:52.624","Text":"to cell phone, and to smartphone."},{"Start":"04:52.624 ","End":"04:53.901","Text":"We are looking at storage devices,"},{"Start":"04:53.901 ","End":"04:56.870","Text":"we went from floppy disk to compact discs,"},{"Start":"04:56.870 ","End":"04:57.980","Text":"to many flash drives,"},{"Start":"04:57.980 ","End":"05:02.370","Text":"many disks, cards, and into storage."},{"Start":"05:02.370 ","End":"05:04.940","Text":"Now in biology, evolution is the change in"},{"Start":"05:04.940 ","End":"05:08.120","Text":"the characteristics of a species or a population over time."},{"Start":"05:08.120 ","End":"05:11.844","Text":"The characteristics or traits of a species or population may be external,"},{"Start":"05:11.844 ","End":"05:15.095","Text":"meaning traits that can be seen as a bird beak size,"},{"Start":"05:15.095 ","End":"05:16.250","Text":"colors of a snake,"},{"Start":"05:16.250 ","End":"05:18.305","Text":"the ability or inability to fly."},{"Start":"05:18.305 ","End":"05:20.840","Text":"They may also be internal traits that can\u0027t be"},{"Start":"05:20.840 ","End":"05:23.825","Text":"seen such as protein structure, immune resistance,"},{"Start":"05:23.825 ","End":"05:26.720","Text":"changes in the traits of a population or species"},{"Start":"05:26.720 ","End":"05:29.635","Text":"over time means that they are undergoing evolution,"},{"Start":"05:29.635 ","End":"05:33.035","Text":"and looking at these 4 different moths you see here,"},{"Start":"05:33.035 ","End":"05:37.610","Text":"you can see that the differences are slight but are compatible with their environment a"},{"Start":"05:37.610 ","End":"05:42.830","Text":"little bit of differences in the wings and the body and the coloring, etc."},{"Start":"05:42.830 ","End":"05:46.550","Text":"Evolutionary theory is the scientific theory that explains how"},{"Start":"05:46.550 ","End":"05:50.660","Text":"these processes of change have taken place and still take place on earth."},{"Start":"05:50.660 ","End":"05:53.795","Text":"It accounts for both the unity and the diversity of life."},{"Start":"05:53.795 ","End":"05:58.460","Text":"Because you have this process where there are mutations and"},{"Start":"05:58.460 ","End":"06:03.080","Text":"some given advantage and therefore that now mutant,"},{"Start":"06:03.080 ","End":"06:08.360","Text":"that different pattern moth"},{"Start":"06:08.360 ","End":"06:11.534","Text":"now has an advantage and now there\u0027s 2 of them, there\u0027s species."},{"Start":"06:11.534 ","End":"06:12.845","Text":"On the other hand,"},{"Start":"06:12.845 ","End":"06:16.220","Text":"having mutations that are not beneficial is also what keeps"},{"Start":"06:16.220 ","End":"06:20.790","Text":"it so that they somewhat stay similar."},{"Start":"06:21.470 ","End":"06:28.465","Text":"These changes are what account for both the unity and the diversity of life."},{"Start":"06:28.465 ","End":"06:30.800","Text":"The 2 central ideas in evolution are that"},{"Start":"06:30.800 ","End":"06:33.920","Text":"all living organisms are related to each other because they have"},{"Start":"06:33.920 ","End":"06:37.280","Text":"descended from a common ancestor through a process of"},{"Start":"06:37.280 ","End":"06:42.590","Text":"modification that has produced new life forms from pre-existing ones."},{"Start":"06:42.590 ","End":"06:46.490","Text":"The idea is that there\u0027s a common ancestor and then there were changes,"},{"Start":"06:46.490 ","End":"06:48.740","Text":"modifications that gave advantage and thus"},{"Start":"06:48.740 ","End":"06:52.745","Text":"produced new life forms from pre-existing ones."},{"Start":"06:52.745 ","End":"06:57.830","Text":"There are several processes or mechanisms that brought about evolutionary changes."},{"Start":"06:57.830 ","End":"07:02.225","Text":"Natural selection is one of them and the most well-known."},{"Start":"07:02.225 ","End":"07:05.510","Text":"At this point, you should be able to explain the idea of"},{"Start":"07:05.510 ","End":"07:09.630","Text":"evolution and list factors that support the concept of evolution."}],"ID":27149},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 1","Duration":"1m 1s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26265,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.510","Text":"What did we learn about the evolutionary foundation?"},{"Start":"00:03.510 ","End":"00:07.350","Text":"Small mutations that confer a selective advantage to an organism"},{"Start":"00:07.350 ","End":"00:11.055","Text":"in some ecological niche resulted in, what?"},{"Start":"00:11.055 ","End":"00:15.528","Text":"Small mutations that confer a selective advantage resulted in speciation,"},{"Start":"00:15.528 ","End":"00:18.660","Text":"the plethora and variety of modern organisms, meaning,"},{"Start":"00:18.660 ","End":"00:21.450","Text":"the different species that have become from"},{"Start":"00:21.450 ","End":"00:28.670","Text":"a common organism and had little changes over time to adapt to their environment."},{"Start":"00:28.670 ","End":"00:30.650","Text":"So we mentioned here we have a green caterpillar,"},{"Start":"00:30.650 ","End":"00:32.735","Text":"and if you see it, it\u0027s on green plants."},{"Start":"00:32.735 ","End":"00:36.620","Text":"Here we have a brown. It\u0027s on brown branches."},{"Start":"00:36.620 ","End":"00:40.010","Text":"These are advantageous for their surrounding. These survive better."},{"Start":"00:40.010 ","End":"00:41.480","Text":"If you have the green on the brown,"},{"Start":"00:41.480 ","End":"00:42.890","Text":"it would stick out, and a predator,"},{"Start":"00:42.890 ","End":"00:45.170","Text":"or a bird, or whatever could come and eat it,"},{"Start":"00:45.170 ","End":"00:46.670","Text":"and then it wouldn\u0027t survive."},{"Start":"00:46.670 ","End":"00:48.230","Text":"So small mutations that confer"},{"Start":"00:48.230 ","End":"00:51.260","Text":"a selective advantage to an organism in some ecological niche,"},{"Start":"00:51.260 ","End":"00:55.355","Text":"in some environment, resulted in speciation."},{"Start":"00:55.355 ","End":"00:59.690","Text":"So these changes resulted in speciation."},{"Start":"00:59.690 ","End":"01:02.220","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to the next exercise."}],"ID":27150},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 2","Duration":"3m 24s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26266,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.290 ","End":"00:06.735","Text":"Hi there. We are doing an exercise covering evolutionary foundation."},{"Start":"00:06.735 ","End":"00:09.060","Text":"Which statement is false?"},{"Start":"00:09.060 ","End":"00:18.270","Text":"A, Earth was"},{"Start":"00:18.270 ","End":"00:21.480","Text":"formed 4.6 billion years ago and the first evidence of"},{"Start":"00:21.480 ","End":"00:26.805","Text":"life dated to more than 3.5 billion years ago."},{"Start":"00:26.805 ","End":"00:33.045","Text":"B, the first simple organism arose during Earth\u0027s first billion years,"},{"Start":"00:33.045 ","End":"00:37.440","Text":"so the first simple organism arose during Earth\u0027s first billion years."},{"Start":"00:37.440 ","End":"00:39.435","Text":"If we look at these,"},{"Start":"00:39.435 ","End":"00:42.830","Text":"4.6 billion first evidence of life,"},{"Start":"00:42.830 ","End":"00:44.555","Text":"that means within the first billion years,"},{"Start":"00:44.555 ","End":"00:47.390","Text":"it seems like these 2 support each other."},{"Start":"00:47.390 ","End":"00:59.750","Text":"C, talk"},{"Start":"00:59.750 ","End":"01:04.940","Text":"about lipid vesicles containing organic compounds and self-replicating RNA,"},{"Start":"01:04.940 ","End":"01:08.915","Text":"and that these probably gave rise to the first cells,"},{"Start":"01:08.915 ","End":"01:10.130","Text":"and these first cells with"},{"Start":"01:10.130 ","End":"01:14.150","Text":"greatest capacity for self-replication are the ones that became more abundant."},{"Start":"01:14.150 ","End":"01:17.330","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to D. The first organism had"},{"Start":"01:17.330 ","End":"01:21.650","Text":"the ability to replicate from a template that was the first genetic material."},{"Start":"01:21.650 ","End":"01:24.910","Text":"E, all of the above."},{"Start":"01:26.630 ","End":"01:31.480","Text":"Let\u0027s go with Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago,"},{"Start":"01:31.480 ","End":"01:34.720","Text":"and the first evidence of life dates to more than 3.5 billion years ago."},{"Start":"01:34.720 ","End":"01:36.790","Text":"If you remember, we talked about in 1996,"},{"Start":"01:36.790 ","End":"01:39.085","Text":"scientists working in Greenland found"},{"Start":"01:39.085 ","End":"01:45.130","Text":"chemical evidence of life from as far back as 3.85 billion years ago,"},{"Start":"01:45.130 ","End":"01:48.120","Text":"and this was in fossil molecules."},{"Start":"01:48.120 ","End":"01:51.190","Text":"They found fossilized molecules,"},{"Start":"01:51.190 ","End":"01:55.900","Text":"and these are forms of carbon embedded in rock, distinctly biological origins."},{"Start":"01:55.900 ","End":"01:58.390","Text":"I imagine a rock that has some shape in it."},{"Start":"01:58.390 ","End":"02:02.395","Text":"This is true, therefore, it\u0027s not false."},{"Start":"02:02.395 ","End":"02:06.740","Text":"Now B, we talked the first simple organism"},{"Start":"02:06.740 ","End":"02:09.260","Text":"arose during Earth\u0027s first billion years ago and like we said"},{"Start":"02:09.260 ","End":"02:12.305","Text":"the Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago."},{"Start":"02:12.305 ","End":"02:16.820","Text":"The first evidence of what we would call life is from a billion years later,"},{"Start":"02:16.820 ","End":"02:18.461","Text":"about 3.5 billion years."},{"Start":"02:18.461 ","End":"02:19.640","Text":"So this again is true,"},{"Start":"02:19.640 ","End":"02:21.250","Text":"therefore, it\u0027s not false."},{"Start":"02:21.250 ","End":"02:24.455","Text":"C, we talked about lipid vesicles containing"},{"Start":"02:24.455 ","End":"02:28.955","Text":"organic compounds and self-replicating RNA that gave rise to the first cells,"},{"Start":"02:28.955 ","End":"02:32.029","Text":"which can also be referred to as the protocells."},{"Start":"02:32.029 ","End":"02:34.185","Text":"Remember, protocells?"},{"Start":"02:34.185 ","End":"02:39.680","Text":"The protocells with the greatest ability to replicate its own structure from a template,"},{"Start":"02:39.680 ","End":"02:42.064","Text":"then essence was the first genetic material,"},{"Start":"02:42.064 ","End":"02:47.105","Text":"possibly RNA, are the ones that became more abundant."},{"Start":"02:47.105 ","End":"02:48.320","Text":"This is true as well,"},{"Start":"02:48.320 ","End":"02:50.705","Text":"therefore, this is incorrect."},{"Start":"02:50.705 ","End":"02:53.000","Text":"Now next we have the first organism."},{"Start":"02:53.000 ","End":"02:58.985","Text":"It had the ability to replicate its own structure from a template that, in essence,"},{"Start":"02:58.985 ","End":"03:01.670","Text":"with the first genetic material,"},{"Start":"03:01.670 ","End":"03:04.535","Text":"possibly RNA, we don\u0027t really know,"},{"Start":"03:04.535 ","End":"03:07.535","Text":"so this also is true."},{"Start":"03:07.535 ","End":"03:12.545","Text":"Therefore, the answer to which statement is false is E,"},{"Start":"03:12.545 ","End":"03:14.810","Text":"because since A and D are all true,"},{"Start":"03:14.810 ","End":"03:19.060","Text":"then stating that they are all false is actually false."},{"Start":"03:19.060 ","End":"03:20.765","Text":"It\u0027s maybe have been a little tricky,"},{"Start":"03:20.765 ","End":"03:24.690","Text":"hopefully we got the point across. Let\u0027s move on."}],"ID":27151},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 3","Duration":"2m 5s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26267,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.225","Text":"We\u0027re back in evolutionary foundation covering and exercise."},{"Start":"00:03.225 ","End":"00:07.875","Text":"Define the term evolution and what is the evolutionary theory."},{"Start":"00:07.875 ","End":"00:11.520","Text":"Part 1, define the term evolution."},{"Start":"00:11.520 ","End":"00:14.460","Text":"Evolution means change over time."},{"Start":"00:14.460 ","End":"00:16.440","Text":"The dictionary definition of evolution is"},{"Start":"00:16.440 ","End":"00:19.110","Text":"gradual change or gradual development of something,"},{"Start":"00:19.110 ","End":"00:21.525","Text":"especially from a simple to a more complex form."},{"Start":"00:21.525 ","End":"00:25.590","Text":"We gave the example of storage devices or phones."},{"Start":"00:25.590 ","End":"00:28.620","Text":"This term can be used for anything that has changed over time."},{"Start":"00:28.620 ","End":"00:31.590","Text":"For example, the evolution of phones or storage devices"},{"Start":"00:31.590 ","End":"00:35.115","Text":"as we see here and mentioned in the lesson."},{"Start":"00:35.115 ","End":"00:37.680","Text":"Now in biology, evolution is the change in"},{"Start":"00:37.680 ","End":"00:41.460","Text":"the characteristics of a species or a population over time,"},{"Start":"00:41.460 ","End":"00:43.739","Text":"and we look at moths and butterflies."},{"Start":"00:43.739 ","End":"00:48.110","Text":"Here we\u0027re seeing a different figure where you have different designs on the moths"},{"Start":"00:48.110 ","End":"00:52.520","Text":"to be more appropriate for the environments they are in,"},{"Start":"00:52.520 ","End":"00:55.940","Text":"where they can adapt and evade predators."},{"Start":"00:55.940 ","End":"00:57.860","Text":"Now, part 2,"},{"Start":"00:57.860 ","End":"00:59.795","Text":"what is the evolutionary theory?"},{"Start":"00:59.795 ","End":"01:03.380","Text":"Evolutionary theory is the scientific theory that explains how"},{"Start":"01:03.380 ","End":"01:07.220","Text":"these processes of change have taken and still take place on Earth."},{"Start":"01:07.220 ","End":"01:10.340","Text":"It accounts for both the unity and the diversity of life."},{"Start":"01:10.340 ","End":"01:14.360","Text":"The idea is that there are changes that have"},{"Start":"01:14.360 ","End":"01:18.125","Text":"occurred amongst organisms of a common ancestor,"},{"Start":"01:18.125 ","End":"01:21.170","Text":"and they\u0027ve changed even though they\u0027re still similar there are"},{"Start":"01:21.170 ","End":"01:24.570","Text":"differences that are appropriate"},{"Start":"01:24.570 ","End":"01:31.595","Text":"and advantageous for the niche or the environment that those organisms live in."},{"Start":"01:31.595 ","End":"01:33.875","Text":"This accounts for both the unity,"},{"Start":"01:33.875 ","End":"01:37.310","Text":"see these have unity because they tend to have"},{"Start":"01:37.310 ","End":"01:41.660","Text":"all 4 wings and a similar body or caterpillars."},{"Start":"01:41.660 ","End":"01:43.970","Text":"You see that they have segmented bodies and they\u0027re"},{"Start":"01:43.970 ","End":"01:46.470","Text":"very similar yet at the same time the diversity,"},{"Start":"01:46.470 ","End":"01:48.530","Text":"because you see diversity in the color."},{"Start":"01:48.530 ","End":"01:52.370","Text":"You see here diversity a little bit in the shape and the size, etc."},{"Start":"01:52.370 ","End":"01:54.650","Text":"Evolutionary theory is the scientific theory"},{"Start":"01:54.650 ","End":"01:56.630","Text":"that explains how these processes of change of"},{"Start":"01:56.630 ","End":"02:01.400","Text":"taken and still take place on earth and accounts for the unity and the diversity of life."},{"Start":"02:01.400 ","End":"02:06.300","Text":"With that we covered our exercise on evolutionary foundation."}],"ID":27152},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Changes in Hereditary Information allows Evolution","Duration":"13m 38s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26268,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.830 ","End":"00:02.970","Text":"Hi, there. We\u0027re within"},{"Start":"00:02.970 ","End":"00:06.480","Text":"evolutionary foundation and we\u0027re moving into talking about changes"},{"Start":"00:06.480 ","End":"00:11.385","Text":"in hereditary information and that allows evolution."},{"Start":"00:11.385 ","End":"00:12.900","Text":"By the end of this section, you will be able to"},{"Start":"00:12.900 ","End":"00:14.835","Text":"explain the formation of a genetic mutation,"},{"Start":"00:14.835 ","End":"00:16.620","Text":"describe the role of mutations evolution,"},{"Start":"00:16.620 ","End":"00:19.455","Text":"how changes in the genetic material results in evolution,"},{"Start":"00:19.455 ","End":"00:22.710","Text":"and understand the balance between chance mutation and opportunity,"},{"Start":"00:22.710 ","End":"00:25.440","Text":"environment and natural selection."},{"Start":"00:25.440 ","End":"00:30.315","Text":"Genetic replication, as explained in a previous section, has near-perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"00:30.315 ","End":"00:31.979","Text":"Yet in the rare occasion,"},{"Start":"00:31.979 ","End":"00:35.460","Text":"an unrepaired mistake in DNA replication and the process"},{"Start":"00:35.460 ","End":"00:37.980","Text":"itself results in a change to"},{"Start":"00:37.980 ","End":"00:42.765","Text":"the nucleotide sequence of the DNA producing a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"00:42.765 ","End":"00:48.905","Text":"If you look here, you have what\u0027s called a single nucleotide polymorphism, a snip,"},{"Start":"00:48.905 ","End":"00:53.600","Text":"because it\u0027s in a single nucleotide that you have a change,"},{"Start":"00:53.600 ","End":"00:56.009","Text":"a morphism, a mutation."},{"Start":"00:56.009 ","End":"00:57.775","Text":"If wild-type is A,"},{"Start":"00:57.775 ","End":"01:00.240","Text":"here you have a mutation where it changed to G,"},{"Start":"01:00.240 ","End":"01:04.130","Text":"here a mutation that changed to C. So the polymorphism, poly changes,"},{"Start":"01:04.130 ","End":"01:08.150","Text":"multiple changes within the same nucleotide that results."},{"Start":"01:08.150 ","End":"01:10.025","Text":"Here you see wild-type is black,"},{"Start":"01:10.025 ","End":"01:12.320","Text":"this one is gray, this is lighter gray."},{"Start":"01:12.320 ","End":"01:15.395","Text":"The instructions for cellular component,"},{"Start":"01:15.395 ","End":"01:17.910","Text":"for example, a specific protein will be affected."},{"Start":"01:17.910 ","End":"01:19.480","Text":"If you\u0027re looking here,"},{"Start":"01:19.480 ","End":"01:24.155","Text":"you can see there\u0027s a change in the wings and the colors and if you\u0027ve seen the body,"},{"Start":"01:24.155 ","End":"01:27.180","Text":"there\u0027s a little bit of a change in the shape of the body."},{"Start":"01:27.410 ","End":"01:34.485","Text":"These mutations result in a change in a protein in the organism."},{"Start":"01:34.485 ","End":"01:38.570","Text":"Change in the genotype and the genes result in"},{"Start":"01:38.570 ","End":"01:42.910","Text":"a change in the phenotype in what we observe."},{"Start":"01:42.910 ","End":"01:49.040","Text":"It is enough for one strand to have an unrepaired error and result in a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"01:49.040 ","End":"01:51.290","Text":"Mutations in the reproductive cells can be"},{"Start":"01:51.290 ","End":"01:55.145","Text":"particularly harmful or even lethal to the offspring,"},{"Start":"01:55.145 ","End":"01:57.365","Text":"the new cell, the organism."},{"Start":"01:57.365 ","End":"02:00.005","Text":"Just for clarification, a somatic cell,"},{"Start":"02:00.005 ","End":"02:01.595","Text":"as we see here,"},{"Start":"02:01.595 ","End":"02:04.355","Text":"is any cell of the body,"},{"Start":"02:04.355 ","End":"02:07.295","Text":"except sperm and egg cells."},{"Start":"02:07.295 ","End":"02:12.365","Text":"Sperm and egg cells are gametes, the sex cells."},{"Start":"02:12.365 ","End":"02:16.165","Text":"These have one sets of chromosomes,"},{"Start":"02:16.165 ","End":"02:18.350","Text":"1 inherited from each parent."},{"Start":"02:18.350 ","End":"02:22.130","Text":"Mutations in somatic cells can affect the individual,"},{"Start":"02:22.130 ","End":"02:25.490","Text":"but they\u0027re not passed on to offspring,"},{"Start":"02:25.490 ","End":"02:30.920","Text":"while mutations in the gametes can pass on to the offspring."},{"Start":"02:30.920 ","End":"02:32.675","Text":"We mentioned this before."},{"Start":"02:32.675 ","End":"02:34.465","Text":"You have haploid and diploid,"},{"Start":"02:34.465 ","End":"02:38.045","Text":"1n or 2n copies of the chromosomes."},{"Start":"02:38.045 ","End":"02:41.090","Text":"In the sex cells,"},{"Start":"02:41.090 ","End":"02:43.474","Text":"you only have 1 copy of the chromosome."},{"Start":"02:43.474 ","End":"02:47.045","Text":"The sperm has 1 copy and the egg has 1 copy,"},{"Start":"02:47.045 ","End":"02:51.425","Text":"they\u0027re both haploid and when they come together into the gamete,"},{"Start":"02:51.425 ","End":"02:53.810","Text":"they will now have 2 copies of chromosomes,"},{"Start":"02:53.810 ","End":"02:56.955","Text":"1 from each parent."},{"Start":"02:56.955 ","End":"02:59.420","Text":"Somatic cells are diploid."},{"Start":"02:59.420 ","End":"03:02.765","Text":"Somatic cells are all the cells in the body that are not gamete,"},{"Start":"03:02.765 ","End":"03:04.850","Text":"that are not sex cells."},{"Start":"03:04.850 ","End":"03:07.395","Text":"Each parental gamete,"},{"Start":"03:07.395 ","End":"03:09.465","Text":"the sperm, or the egg,"},{"Start":"03:09.465 ","End":"03:11.370","Text":"each have 1 copy of a chromosome."},{"Start":"03:11.370 ","End":"03:13.534","Text":"They\u0027re each haploid and when they come together,"},{"Start":"03:13.534 ","End":"03:16.230","Text":"you get in the zygote,"},{"Start":"03:16.230 ","End":"03:18.360","Text":"the product of the 2 of them coming together,"},{"Start":"03:18.360 ","End":"03:23.890","Text":"2 sets of chromosomes and 1 from each parent, maternal and paternal."},{"Start":"03:23.890 ","End":"03:25.535","Text":"If we\u0027re looking here,"},{"Start":"03:25.535 ","End":"03:27.980","Text":"you have male and a female."},{"Start":"03:27.980 ","End":"03:30.200","Text":"They have 2 sets of chromosomes."},{"Start":"03:30.200 ","End":"03:32.690","Text":"Each one contributes 1 sex cell,"},{"Start":"03:32.690 ","End":"03:37.070","Text":"1 gamete, and that there is 1 set of chromosomes."},{"Start":"03:37.070 ","End":"03:41.180","Text":"These come together and form a zygote,"},{"Start":"03:41.180 ","End":"03:45.285","Text":"which now has 2 sets of chromosomes and this is the offspring\u0027s."},{"Start":"03:45.285 ","End":"03:48.620","Text":"Now the offspring will have a set of chromosomes of which"},{"Start":"03:48.620 ","End":"03:53.450","Text":"1 is mutated if you do have mutation,"},{"Start":"03:53.450 ","End":"03:55.250","Text":"and depending on the mutation,"},{"Start":"03:55.250 ","End":"03:57.860","Text":"this can be detrimental or even lethal."},{"Start":"03:57.860 ","End":"04:01.640","Text":"If you do have a mutation,"},{"Start":"04:01.640 ","End":"04:06.110","Text":"it can be lethal or harmful in the offspring."},{"Start":"04:06.110 ","End":"04:11.000","Text":"For example, this can result in a defective enzyme that is not able to catalyze"},{"Start":"04:11.000 ","End":"04:14.960","Text":"an essential metabolic reaction because it does not"},{"Start":"04:14.960 ","End":"04:19.700","Text":"fold correctly or it doesn\u0027t recognize its substrate or recognize as something else."},{"Start":"04:19.700 ","End":"04:26.660","Text":"P53 is an important protein that has been shown to be associated with cancer."},{"Start":"04:26.660 ","End":"04:29.080","Text":"When this is mutated,"},{"Start":"04:29.080 ","End":"04:33.925","Text":"its normal process of control of the cell division is damaged,"},{"Start":"04:33.925 ","End":"04:39.700","Text":"so that cells continuously divide and thus may result in cancer."},{"Start":"04:39.700 ","End":"04:42.040","Text":"When you have a normal p53,"},{"Start":"04:42.040 ","End":"04:47.995","Text":"what happens is it arrests the cell cycle when there is cellular damage and"},{"Start":"04:47.995 ","End":"04:55.015","Text":"the damages then repaired and only when it is repaired will the cell cycle continue."},{"Start":"04:55.015 ","End":"04:56.950","Text":"If you have cell cycle arrest,"},{"Start":"04:56.950 ","End":"04:59.170","Text":"DNA repair, the cell cycle restart."},{"Start":"04:59.170 ","End":"05:03.595","Text":"If the damage cannot be repaired, apoptosis occurs."},{"Start":"05:03.595 ","End":"05:05.410","Text":"The cell will die."},{"Start":"05:05.410 ","End":"05:07.090","Text":"That\u0027s when you have normal p53."},{"Start":"05:07.090 ","End":"05:09.025","Text":"When you have mutated p53,"},{"Start":"05:09.025 ","End":"05:11.545","Text":"DNA damaged cell cycle abnormalities."},{"Start":"05:11.545 ","End":"05:15.470","Text":"You have a cell cycle that continues"},{"Start":"05:15.470 ","End":"05:20.075","Text":"and therefore can become cancerous because it continues to divide."},{"Start":"05:20.075 ","End":"05:22.460","Text":"Now, occasionally, a mutation is beneficial"},{"Start":"05:22.460 ","End":"05:24.745","Text":"to the organism\u0027s survival and its environment."},{"Start":"05:24.745 ","End":"05:29.465","Text":"We\u0027ll illustrate the process by showing an example of the buff-tip moth."},{"Start":"05:29.465 ","End":"05:33.335","Text":"This moth is found throughout Europe and in Asia, through Siberia."},{"Start":"05:33.335 ","End":"05:39.615","Text":"It\u0027s forewings are great with large prominent buff patches."},{"Start":"05:39.615 ","End":"05:42.120","Text":"The thoracic hair is also buff."},{"Start":"05:42.120 ","End":"05:45.680","Text":"The moth resembles, if you see here,"},{"Start":"05:45.680 ","End":"05:48.665","Text":"a broken twig when at rest."},{"Start":"05:48.665 ","End":"05:54.620","Text":"This allows this moth to survive in its environment."},{"Start":"05:54.620 ","End":"05:58.550","Text":"A mutation may result in an enzyme with slightly different specificity,"},{"Start":"05:58.550 ","End":"06:04.685","Text":"allowing the cell to now metabolize a compound that the cell previously could not."},{"Start":"06:04.685 ","End":"06:09.170","Text":"Here you see that there\u0027s a mutation and it basically results in the fact that"},{"Start":"06:09.170 ","End":"06:13.400","Text":"now this can use galactose as a substrate,"},{"Start":"06:13.400 ","End":"06:15.485","Text":"whereas previously it used glucose."},{"Start":"06:15.485 ","End":"06:21.330","Text":"It basically now metabolizes the compound that the cell previously could not."},{"Start":"06:21.330 ","End":"06:25.070","Text":"If population of cells is then exposed to"},{"Start":"06:25.070 ","End":"06:31.550","Text":"an environment that is rich in that compound or is the sole source of fuel energy,"},{"Start":"06:31.550 ","End":"06:36.740","Text":"the mutant cell will have a selective advantage over the unmutated cells or organisms,"},{"Start":"06:36.740 ","End":"06:40.315","Text":"and then it will increase with time."},{"Start":"06:40.315 ","End":"06:43.952","Text":"If you have first-generation advantageous,"},{"Start":"06:43.952 ","End":"06:47.475","Text":"there\u0027s three of these mutants out of 10,"},{"Start":"06:47.475 ","End":"06:51.590","Text":"you then see they\u0027re advantageous of some more of them survive,"},{"Start":"06:51.590 ","End":"06:53.810","Text":"whereas here it\u0027s only 1-to-1."},{"Start":"06:53.810 ","End":"06:59.660","Text":"Now there\u0027s 6 versus 13 and it continues to increase."},{"Start":"06:59.660 ","End":"07:02.150","Text":"The mutant cell and its progeny would survive and"},{"Start":"07:02.150 ","End":"07:04.580","Text":"flourish in the new environment whereas the wild-type,"},{"Start":"07:04.580 ","End":"07:05.900","Text":"the unmutated cells,"},{"Start":"07:05.900 ","End":"07:09.845","Text":"would starve and be eradicated and become less and less,"},{"Start":"07:09.845 ","End":"07:11.240","Text":"they will die off."},{"Start":"07:11.240 ","End":"07:14.360","Text":"This is what Darwin defined as natural selection,"},{"Start":"07:14.360 ","End":"07:18.170","Text":"which is also known as survival of the fittest."},{"Start":"07:18.170 ","End":"07:24.410","Text":"Diving into this idea of a mutation conferring benefit to an organism leads us to"},{"Start":"07:24.410 ","End":"07:26.990","Text":"a key concept that was introduced by Darwin as"},{"Start":"07:26.990 ","End":"07:30.660","Text":"the driving force of evolution by natural selection."},{"Start":"07:30.660 ","End":"07:34.969","Text":"Individuals with characteristics would allow them to best compete for limited resources,"},{"Start":"07:34.969 ","End":"07:39.380","Text":"will survive and have more offspring than those with variations that are"},{"Start":"07:39.380 ","End":"07:44.705","Text":"less efficient with a reduced ability to compete."},{"Start":"07:44.705 ","End":"07:50.810","Text":"Again, you basically will see those that aren\u0027t as efficient will"},{"Start":"07:50.810 ","End":"07:56.570","Text":"not replicate as do the individuals with characteristics that are beneficial."},{"Start":"07:56.570 ","End":"08:01.295","Text":"These are going to be characteristics that provide an advantage in escaping predators."},{"Start":"08:01.295 ","End":"08:05.405","Text":"As an example mentioned previously of the moth that uses camouflage"},{"Start":"08:05.405 ","End":"08:10.040","Text":"or an advantage at obtaining food or tolerating physical conditions,"},{"Start":"08:10.040 ","End":"08:14.285","Text":"like extreme temperature or low oxygen levels, etc."},{"Start":"08:14.285 ","End":"08:18.410","Text":"These are called adaptive traits or adaptations."},{"Start":"08:18.410 ","End":"08:20.585","Text":"Going back to the buff-tip moth,"},{"Start":"08:20.585 ","End":"08:25.264","Text":"it has adapted so it is camouflaged in its environment."},{"Start":"08:25.264 ","End":"08:26.825","Text":"And as you see here,"},{"Start":"08:26.825 ","End":"08:29.950","Text":"these camouflage to their environment,"},{"Start":"08:29.950 ","End":"08:32.180","Text":"so they can evade predators."},{"Start":"08:32.180 ","End":"08:38.035","Text":"These adaptations, these beneficial traits, are inherited."},{"Start":"08:38.035 ","End":"08:41.620","Text":"Thus individuals with these characteristics will become more common"},{"Start":"08:41.620 ","End":"08:45.245","Text":"in the population over successive generations."},{"Start":"08:45.245 ","End":"08:47.950","Text":"Diving into this idea of mutation"},{"Start":"08:47.950 ","End":"08:52.540","Text":"conferring benefit to an organism leads us to the key concept again,"},{"Start":"08:52.540 ","End":"08:59.964","Text":"that Darwin introduced as a driving force of evolution, the natural selection."},{"Start":"08:59.964 ","End":"09:06.430","Text":"This results in a change in the genetic composition of the population over generations."},{"Start":"09:06.430 ","End":"09:09.460","Text":"Here we see an example of natural selection and"},{"Start":"09:09.460 ","End":"09:12.560","Text":"the resulting change in population as Darwin describes."},{"Start":"09:12.560 ","End":"09:14.859","Text":"You have a little illustration of Darwinian,"},{"Start":"09:14.859 ","End":"09:20.535","Text":"evolution and what you see here is that there are gray mice and white mice,"},{"Start":"09:20.535 ","End":"09:25.835","Text":"and white mice population is greater than dark mice population,"},{"Start":"09:25.835 ","End":"09:30.905","Text":"yet you have white mice that are more visible to the fox,"},{"Start":"09:30.905 ","End":"09:33.650","Text":"the predator, in this specific environment,"},{"Start":"09:33.650 ","End":"09:35.380","Text":"thus, white mice are eaten more."},{"Start":"09:35.380 ","End":"09:39.214","Text":"Some mice are eaten by the fox because white stand out more."},{"Start":"09:39.214 ","End":"09:41.270","Text":"It catches the white more easily."},{"Start":"09:41.270 ","End":"09:45.170","Text":"What happens is now some mice were eaten,"},{"Start":"09:45.170 ","End":"09:47.375","Text":"say here 2 of the white ones,"},{"Start":"09:47.375 ","End":"09:49.665","Text":"the surviving mice reproduce."},{"Start":"09:49.665 ","End":"09:55.610","Text":"So now these 3 gray ones have now turned into 6 gray ones and you now"},{"Start":"09:55.610 ","End":"10:02.070","Text":"have more of the gray than the white in this environment."},{"Start":"10:02.070 ","End":"10:05.090","Text":"You have more of the gray over generations."},{"Start":"10:05.090 ","End":"10:07.670","Text":"Occasionally, a second copy of the whole gene is"},{"Start":"10:07.670 ","End":"10:10.775","Text":"introduced into the chromosome as a result of defective replication."},{"Start":"10:10.775 ","End":"10:14.510","Text":"You have genome and DNA with a hexokinase gene."},{"Start":"10:14.510 ","End":"10:19.160","Text":"A rare mistake during DNA replication duplicates the hexokinase gene."},{"Start":"10:19.160 ","End":"10:21.590","Text":"Now you have a duplicate gene,"},{"Start":"10:21.590 ","End":"10:23.315","Text":"2 of the same gene."},{"Start":"10:23.315 ","End":"10:32.175","Text":"The second copy is superfluous and mutation in this gene may lead to the cell to evolve"},{"Start":"10:32.175 ","End":"10:36.630","Text":"by producing a new gene with a new function in"},{"Start":"10:36.630 ","End":"10:41.239","Text":"addition to the original genome function that are still present."},{"Start":"10:41.239 ","End":"10:42.395","Text":"If you look here,"},{"Start":"10:42.395 ","End":"10:43.880","Text":"you have the duplicate gene."},{"Start":"10:43.880 ","End":"10:48.830","Text":"The second rare mistake occurs is that there is a mutation."},{"Start":"10:48.830 ","End":"10:52.580","Text":"What happens is now you have the original gene that can"},{"Start":"10:52.580 ","End":"10:58.850","Text":"use glucose as its substrate and then you have the mutant hexokinase,"},{"Start":"10:58.850 ","End":"11:02.300","Text":"the gene that can use galactose as a substrate."},{"Start":"11:02.300 ","End":"11:07.220","Text":"This explains how DNA is used to assess historical evolution of modern organisms."},{"Start":"11:07.220 ","End":"11:09.890","Text":"DNA molecules are probably the most reliable source of"},{"Start":"11:09.890 ","End":"11:14.915","Text":"biological history we have and this can tell us,"},{"Start":"11:14.915 ","End":"11:17.540","Text":"if this is what happens,"},{"Start":"11:17.540 ","End":"11:20.900","Text":"this can now use galactose as a substrate."},{"Start":"11:20.900 ","End":"11:22.370","Text":"Looking at the genome, seeing that there\u0027s"},{"Start":"11:22.370 ","End":"11:26.150","Text":"a duplicate with a small mutation that leads to this,"},{"Start":"11:26.150 ","End":"11:28.490","Text":"we can know that there must have been"},{"Start":"11:28.490 ","End":"11:32.345","Text":"this rare mistake in the replication where there\u0027s duplication of a gene."},{"Start":"11:32.345 ","End":"11:33.740","Text":"This allows us, again,"},{"Start":"11:33.740 ","End":"11:39.875","Text":"with sequencing to backtrack into the origins, the common ancestors."},{"Start":"11:39.875 ","End":"11:42.890","Text":"If you look here, Darwin visioned"},{"Start":"11:42.890 ","End":"11:46.070","Text":"a branching pattern of evolution from a common ancestor."},{"Start":"11:46.070 ","End":"11:49.165","Text":"If you have common ancestor 1,"},{"Start":"11:49.165 ","End":"11:52.095","Text":"it splits into the twigs,"},{"Start":"11:52.095 ","End":"11:53.510","Text":"A, B, C, D,"},{"Start":"11:53.510 ","End":"11:58.565","Text":"representing living organisms and all the branches represent extinct groups."},{"Start":"11:58.565 ","End":"12:04.530","Text":"This is later what we see with the genotype tree,"},{"Start":"12:04.530 ","End":"12:06.390","Text":"with the sequencing tree."},{"Start":"12:06.390 ","End":"12:10.670","Text":"The frequency of errors in DNA replication represents a crucial balance between having"},{"Start":"12:10.670 ","End":"12:15.715","Text":"too many errors that result in nonviable progeny."},{"Start":"12:15.715 ","End":"12:19.080","Text":"In cell replication this is also known as daughter cells,"},{"Start":"12:19.080 ","End":"12:21.950","Text":"the offspring, and too few,"},{"Start":"12:21.950 ","End":"12:24.620","Text":"which would prevent the genetic variation that"},{"Start":"12:24.620 ","End":"12:27.920","Text":"allows survival through changing environments,"},{"Start":"12:27.920 ","End":"12:32.224","Text":"meaning the survival of mutant cells and new ecological niches."},{"Start":"12:32.224 ","End":"12:37.190","Text":"Several billions of years of natural selection have refined cellular systems to take"},{"Start":"12:37.190 ","End":"12:42.680","Text":"maximum advantage of the chemical and physical properties of available resources,"},{"Start":"12:42.680 ","End":"12:45.400","Text":"the raw materials in their environment."},{"Start":"12:45.400 ","End":"12:48.705","Text":"Chance genetic mutations in individuals of a population,"},{"Start":"12:48.705 ","End":"12:51.130","Text":"in the process of natural selection,"},{"Start":"12:51.130 ","End":"12:56.585","Text":"resulted in the evolution of the vast variety of species we have today."},{"Start":"12:56.585 ","End":"13:01.415","Text":"Each adapted to its particular ecological niche."},{"Start":"13:01.415 ","End":"13:05.285","Text":"There were these mutations random in"},{"Start":"13:05.285 ","End":"13:10.160","Text":"the genes and these resulted in natural selection because"},{"Start":"13:10.160 ","End":"13:14.840","Text":"individuals were somewhat different and it resulted in a variety of"},{"Start":"13:14.840 ","End":"13:21.160","Text":"species that each one is adapted to its particular ecological niche."},{"Start":"13:21.160 ","End":"13:24.500","Text":"With this, we covered the topic of changes in"},{"Start":"13:24.500 ","End":"13:27.130","Text":"hereditary information allowing evolution"},{"Start":"13:27.130 ","End":"13:29.810","Text":"and you should be able to explain the formation of a genetic mutation,"},{"Start":"13:29.810 ","End":"13:32.540","Text":"describe the role of mutations and evolution and understand the balance"},{"Start":"13:32.540 ","End":"13:35.725","Text":"between chance mutation and opportunity environment,"},{"Start":"13:35.725 ","End":"13:39.600","Text":"the concept of natural selection."}],"ID":27153},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 4","Duration":"3m 30s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26269,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:06.370","Text":"Hi there, we\u0027re within a section of changes in hereditary information allow evolution."},{"Start":"00:06.620 ","End":"00:10.665","Text":"Complete the sentences below, fill in the blanks."},{"Start":"00:10.665 ","End":"00:14.505","Text":"Genetic replication has near perfect blank."},{"Start":"00:14.505 ","End":"00:19.350","Text":"In the rare occasion an unrepaired mistake in DNA replication results in a change to"},{"Start":"00:19.350 ","End":"00:24.420","Text":"the blank sequence of the DNA producing a genetic blank."},{"Start":"00:24.420 ","End":"00:28.200","Text":"A genetic mutation can affect the blank for a cellular component,"},{"Start":"00:28.200 ","End":"00:30.690","Text":"for example, a specific protein will be affected."},{"Start":"00:30.690 ","End":"00:36.845","Text":"It is for 1 strand to have an unrepaired error and result in genetic mutation."},{"Start":"00:36.845 ","End":"00:43.170","Text":"Mutations in the blank cells can be particularly harmful or even lethal to the blank."},{"Start":"00:43.170 ","End":"00:48.320","Text":"Occasionally a mutation is to organism\u0027s survival in its environment."},{"Start":"00:48.320 ","End":"00:52.225","Text":"Lets start."},{"Start":"00:52.225 ","End":"00:58.010","Text":"Genetic replication has a near perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"00:58.010 ","End":"01:00.965","Text":"It is super important that within genetic replication,"},{"Start":"01:00.965 ","End":"01:03.560","Text":"it is very precise."},{"Start":"01:03.560 ","End":"01:07.340","Text":"In the rare occasion, an unrepaired mistake in DNA replication results"},{"Start":"01:07.340 ","End":"01:11.255","Text":"in a change to the nucleotide sequence."},{"Start":"01:11.255 ","End":"01:13.880","Text":"The genome is made of nucleotides."},{"Start":"01:13.880 ","End":"01:17.720","Text":"In the rare occasion, an unrepaired mistake in DNA replication results in a change to"},{"Start":"01:17.720 ","End":"01:22.955","Text":"the nucleotide sequence of the DNA producing a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"01:22.955 ","End":"01:26.875","Text":"You have a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA and that results in a mutation."},{"Start":"01:26.875 ","End":"01:33.890","Text":"A genetic mutation can thus affect the instructions for a cellular component."},{"Start":"01:33.890 ","End":"01:36.350","Text":"For example, a specific protein will be affected."},{"Start":"01:36.350 ","End":"01:39.440","Text":"This change will affect that the protein will now be a little bit different."},{"Start":"01:39.440 ","End":"01:43.730","Text":"Remember we talked about the example of p53 using usually glucose as a substrate."},{"Start":"01:43.730 ","End":"01:47.105","Text":"There\u0027s a mutation and now it can use galactose as a substrate."},{"Start":"01:47.105 ","End":"01:51.030","Text":"Now it is something for"},{"Start":"01:51.030 ","End":"01:56.580","Text":"1 strand to have an unrepaired error and result in a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"01:56.710 ","End":"02:01.190","Text":"It is enough or sufficient for"},{"Start":"02:01.190 ","End":"02:06.185","Text":"1 strand to have an unrepaired error and result in a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"02:06.185 ","End":"02:10.250","Text":"Next, mutations in the what cells"},{"Start":"02:10.250 ","End":"02:14.015","Text":"can be particularly harmful or even lethal to the, what?"},{"Start":"02:14.015 ","End":"02:18.580","Text":"We talked about their somatic cells and sex cells gametes,"},{"Start":"02:18.580 ","End":"02:20.610","Text":"the sperm or the egg cell."},{"Start":"02:20.610 ","End":"02:23.825","Text":"Mutations in the reproductive the sex cells,"},{"Start":"02:23.825 ","End":"02:31.500","Text":"these sperm or egg cells can be particular harmful or even lethal to the offspring."},{"Start":"02:31.910 ","End":"02:36.860","Text":"We are now in the last sentence occasionally,"},{"Start":"02:36.860 ","End":"02:41.990","Text":"a mutation is what to the organism\u0027s survival and its environment?"},{"Start":"02:41.990 ","End":"02:45.020","Text":"It can be advantageous,"},{"Start":"02:45.020 ","End":"02:47.360","Text":"it can be beneficial."},{"Start":"02:47.360 ","End":"02:49.415","Text":"Let\u0027s go over these points."},{"Start":"02:49.415 ","End":"02:52.100","Text":"Genetic replication has near perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"02:52.100 ","End":"02:55.820","Text":"In the rare occasion, an unrepaired mistake in DNA replication results in a change"},{"Start":"02:55.820 ","End":"02:59.485","Text":"to the nucleotide sequence of the DNA producing a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"02:59.485 ","End":"03:02.870","Text":"A genetic mutation can affect the instructions for cellular component,"},{"Start":"03:02.870 ","End":"03:05.600","Text":"for example, a specific protein will be affected."},{"Start":"03:05.600 ","End":"03:11.180","Text":"It is enough for 1 strand to have an unrepaired error and result in a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"03:11.180 ","End":"03:14.330","Text":"Mutations in the reproductive or the sex cells,"},{"Start":"03:14.330 ","End":"03:18.109","Text":"can be particularly harmful or even lethal to the offspring."},{"Start":"03:18.109 ","End":"03:22.430","Text":"Occasionally, a mutation is beneficial to the organism\u0027s survival and its environment."},{"Start":"03:22.430 ","End":"03:28.625","Text":"We talked about that then that organism may outnumber the other organisms."},{"Start":"03:28.625 ","End":"03:31.710","Text":"With that, we completed this exercise."}],"ID":27154},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 5","Duration":"2m 2s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26270,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:03.150","Text":"Hi there, we\u0027re back with an exercise in changes in"},{"Start":"00:03.150 ","End":"00:07.185","Text":"hereditary information allows evolution. Part 1."},{"Start":"00:07.185 ","End":"00:09.810","Text":"Explain how mutations can be beneficial to"},{"Start":"00:09.810 ","End":"00:13.770","Text":"the organism\u0027s survival in its environment and what are these mutations called?"},{"Start":"00:13.770 ","End":"00:17.520","Text":"A mutation that gives an advantage to organisms in an environment will in essence"},{"Start":"00:17.520 ","End":"00:21.435","Text":"allow them to outnumber other organisms with a lesser advantage."},{"Start":"00:21.435 ","End":"00:24.420","Text":"If you\u0027re looking here, these are the wild-types,"},{"Start":"00:24.420 ","End":"00:26.618","Text":"these are partly mutated,"},{"Start":"00:26.618 ","End":"00:29.835","Text":"and these are mutations that are beneficial,"},{"Start":"00:29.835 ","End":"00:31.755","Text":"advantageous to the organisms."},{"Start":"00:31.755 ","End":"00:39.420","Text":"These can outnumber over generations in the reproduction because they survive it better."},{"Start":"00:39.420 ","End":"00:43.309","Text":"This therefore allows for them to"},{"Start":"00:43.309 ","End":"00:48.120","Text":"outnumber the other organisms with a lesser advantage. Always satisfying."},{"Start":"00:48.120 ","End":"00:50.510","Text":"Individuals with characteristics which allow them"},{"Start":"00:50.510 ","End":"00:52.910","Text":"to best compete for limited resources will"},{"Start":"00:52.910 ","End":"00:58.010","Text":"survive and have more offspring than those with variations that are less efficient,"},{"Start":"00:58.010 ","End":"01:00.850","Text":"meaning with reduced ability to compete."},{"Start":"01:00.850 ","End":"01:09.155","Text":"These can be characteristics that provide an advantage in escaping predators."},{"Start":"01:09.155 ","End":"01:12.560","Text":"As an example mentioned previously of the moth that uses camouflage,"},{"Start":"01:12.560 ","End":"01:14.255","Text":"or in obtaining food,"},{"Start":"01:14.255 ","End":"01:20.385","Text":"or tolerating physical conditions like extreme temperatures or low oxygen levels, etc."},{"Start":"01:20.385 ","End":"01:27.415","Text":"These are called adaptive traits or adaptations. Part 2."},{"Start":"01:27.415 ","End":"01:31.475","Text":"What is the term that describes this driving force of evolution?"},{"Start":"01:31.475 ","End":"01:33.800","Text":"We talked about how Darwin explained this."},{"Start":"01:33.800 ","End":"01:37.445","Text":"The term for this process is natural selection."},{"Start":"01:37.445 ","End":"01:42.050","Text":"Darwin had established that natural selection is"},{"Start":"01:42.050 ","End":"01:47.780","Text":"the driving force of evolution because there\u0027s unnatural selection"},{"Start":"01:47.780 ","End":"01:52.250","Text":"of organisms that are with mutations that have"},{"Start":"01:52.250 ","End":"01:59.485","Text":"an advantage in the specific environment they are in."},{"Start":"01:59.485 ","End":"02:03.400","Text":"With that, we complete the both parts of this exercise."}],"ID":27155},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 6","Duration":"1m 28s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26241,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.640","Text":"Welcome to an exercise within"},{"Start":"00:02.640 ","End":"00:06.255","Text":"this section of Changes in Hereditary Information Allows Evolution."},{"Start":"00:06.255 ","End":"00:08.370","Text":"Explain how an extra copy,"},{"Start":"00:08.370 ","End":"00:12.870","Text":"a second copy of a gene that is introduced into the chromosome as"},{"Start":"00:12.870 ","End":"00:18.840","Text":"a result of a defective replication can confer a role in evolution."},{"Start":"00:18.840 ","End":"00:22.790","Text":"Well, the second copy is superfluous,"},{"Start":"00:22.790 ","End":"00:27.380","Text":"it\u0027s redundant and mutations in this gene may lead to the cell to evolve by"},{"Start":"00:27.380 ","End":"00:29.510","Text":"producing a new gene with"},{"Start":"00:29.510 ","End":"00:33.425","Text":"a new function in addition to the original gene function that are still present,"},{"Start":"00:33.425 ","End":"00:36.335","Text":"and thus give it additional abilities,"},{"Start":"00:36.335 ","End":"00:38.345","Text":"superpowers, if you may."},{"Start":"00:38.345 ","End":"00:41.660","Text":"To reiterate a second copy which is redundant,"},{"Start":"00:41.660 ","End":"00:44.700","Text":"can have a mutation."},{"Start":"00:45.550 ","End":"00:48.500","Text":"With this second mutation,"},{"Start":"00:48.500 ","End":"00:51.800","Text":"the cell with the second gene that has a mutation,"},{"Start":"00:51.800 ","End":"00:53.240","Text":"can have a new function."},{"Start":"00:53.240 ","End":"00:55.475","Text":"It can now metabolize something different."},{"Start":"00:55.475 ","End":"00:58.025","Text":"We talked about the example of a hexokinase,"},{"Start":"00:58.025 ","End":"01:00.901","Text":"which uses glucose as a substrate,"},{"Start":"01:00.901 ","End":"01:04.610","Text":"and then if it doubles up and is redundant and has a mutation,"},{"Start":"01:04.610 ","End":"01:07.885","Text":"it can now use galactose."},{"Start":"01:07.885 ","End":"01:14.815","Text":"You have the 2 hexokinases in the genome,1 and 2, and now,"},{"Start":"01:14.815 ","End":"01:20.265","Text":"this organism with the second mutated gene can use galactose as a substrate,"},{"Start":"01:20.265 ","End":"01:24.110","Text":"and it thus has an advantage that if there\u0027s any limitation of glucose,"},{"Start":"01:24.110 ","End":"01:26.195","Text":"it has an alternative."},{"Start":"01:26.195 ","End":"01:29.580","Text":"With that, we\u0027ve completed this exercise."}],"ID":27156},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 7","Duration":"1m 24s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26242,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.760","Text":"Hi there, we have another exercise testing our knowledge"},{"Start":"00:02.760 ","End":"00:05.955","Text":"on changes in hereditary information allowing evolution."},{"Start":"00:05.955 ","End":"00:11.805","Text":"How is the frequency of errors in DNA replication important for evolution and survival?"},{"Start":"00:11.805 ","End":"00:13.980","Text":"The frequency represents a crucial balance"},{"Start":"00:13.980 ","End":"00:16.110","Text":"between having too many errors that would result in"},{"Start":"00:16.110 ","End":"00:21.195","Text":"nonviable progeny offspring or cells and too few,"},{"Start":"00:21.195 ","End":"00:23.070","Text":"which would prevent the genetic variation that"},{"Start":"00:23.070 ","End":"00:25.634","Text":"allows survival through changing environments,"},{"Start":"00:25.634 ","End":"00:29.115","Text":"meaning the survival of mutant cells in new ecological niches."},{"Start":"00:29.115 ","End":"00:35.520","Text":"As environments change, let\u0027s say we are in an area with like global warming,"},{"Start":"00:35.520 ","End":"00:39.290","Text":"you have temperatures rising in the sea for example."},{"Start":"00:39.290 ","End":"00:41.900","Text":"So if you have fish that have the mutation or"},{"Start":"00:41.900 ","End":"00:45.500","Text":"coral that are mutated to survive those higher temperatures,"},{"Start":"00:45.500 ","End":"00:48.245","Text":"that gives them an advantage."},{"Start":"00:48.245 ","End":"00:53.375","Text":"But if you don\u0027t have these mutations,"},{"Start":"00:53.375 ","End":"00:59.300","Text":"these organisms may not survive in this new and changing environment."},{"Start":"00:59.300 ","End":"01:03.785","Text":"At the same time, if you have too many mutations, too many errors,"},{"Start":"01:03.785 ","End":"01:09.140","Text":"it may lead to the fish or the coral not to survive even in the same environment."},{"Start":"01:09.140 ","End":"01:11.930","Text":"Therefore, it is a crucial balance between having"},{"Start":"01:11.930 ","End":"01:16.415","Text":"too many errors that result in nonviable progeny and too few which"},{"Start":"01:16.415 ","End":"01:19.460","Text":"would prevent genetic variation that allows"},{"Start":"01:19.460 ","End":"01:25.020","Text":"the survival and the evolution and with that we\u0027ve completed this exercise."}],"ID":27157},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Biomolecules arose from Chemical Evolution","Duration":"6m 58s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26243,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.830 ","End":"00:02.970","Text":"Hi, there. We\u0027re within"},{"Start":"00:02.970 ","End":"00:06.480","Text":"evolutionary foundation and we\u0027re moving into talking about changes"},{"Start":"00:06.480 ","End":"00:11.385","Text":"in hereditary information and that allows evolution."},{"Start":"00:11.385 ","End":"00:12.900","Text":"By the end of this section, you will be able to"},{"Start":"00:12.900 ","End":"00:14.835","Text":"explain the formation of a genetic mutation,"},{"Start":"00:14.835 ","End":"00:16.620","Text":"describe the role of mutations evolution,"},{"Start":"00:16.620 ","End":"00:19.455","Text":"how changes in the genetic material results in evolution,"},{"Start":"00:19.455 ","End":"00:22.710","Text":"and understand the balance between chance mutation and opportunity,"},{"Start":"00:22.710 ","End":"00:25.440","Text":"environment and natural selection."},{"Start":"00:25.440 ","End":"00:30.315","Text":"Genetic replication, as explained in a previous section, has near-perfect fidelity."},{"Start":"00:30.315 ","End":"00:31.979","Text":"Yet in the rare occasion,"},{"Start":"00:31.979 ","End":"00:35.460","Text":"an unrepaired mistake in DNA replication and the process"},{"Start":"00:35.460 ","End":"00:37.980","Text":"itself results in a change to"},{"Start":"00:37.980 ","End":"00:42.765","Text":"the nucleotide sequence of the DNA producing a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"00:42.765 ","End":"00:48.905","Text":"If you look here, you have what\u0027s called a single nucleotide polymorphism, a snip,"},{"Start":"00:48.905 ","End":"00:53.600","Text":"because it\u0027s in a single nucleotide that you have a change,"},{"Start":"00:53.600 ","End":"00:56.009","Text":"a morphism, a mutation."},{"Start":"00:56.009 ","End":"00:57.775","Text":"If wild-type is A,"},{"Start":"00:57.775 ","End":"01:00.240","Text":"here you have a mutation where it changed to G,"},{"Start":"01:00.240 ","End":"01:04.130","Text":"here a mutation that changed to C. So the polymorphism, poly changes,"},{"Start":"01:04.130 ","End":"01:08.150","Text":"multiple changes within the same nucleotide that results."},{"Start":"01:08.150 ","End":"01:10.025","Text":"Here you see wild-type is black,"},{"Start":"01:10.025 ","End":"01:12.320","Text":"this one is gray, this is lighter gray."},{"Start":"01:12.320 ","End":"01:15.395","Text":"The instructions for cellular component,"},{"Start":"01:15.395 ","End":"01:17.910","Text":"for example, a specific protein will be affected."},{"Start":"01:17.910 ","End":"01:19.480","Text":"If you\u0027re looking here,"},{"Start":"01:19.480 ","End":"01:24.155","Text":"you can see there\u0027s a change in the wings and the colors and if you\u0027ve seen the body,"},{"Start":"01:24.155 ","End":"01:27.180","Text":"there\u0027s a little bit of a change in the shape of the body."},{"Start":"01:27.410 ","End":"01:34.485","Text":"These mutations result in a change in a protein in the organism."},{"Start":"01:34.485 ","End":"01:38.570","Text":"Change in the genotype and the genes result in"},{"Start":"01:38.570 ","End":"01:42.910","Text":"a change in the phenotype in what we observe."},{"Start":"01:42.910 ","End":"01:49.040","Text":"It is enough for one strand to have an unrepaired error and result in a genetic mutation."},{"Start":"01:49.040 ","End":"01:51.290","Text":"Mutations in the reproductive cells can be"},{"Start":"01:51.290 ","End":"01:55.145","Text":"particularly harmful or even lethal to the offspring,"},{"Start":"01:55.145 ","End":"01:57.365","Text":"the new cell, the organism."},{"Start":"01:57.365 ","End":"02:00.005","Text":"Just for clarification, a somatic cell,"},{"Start":"02:00.005 ","End":"02:01.595","Text":"as we see here,"},{"Start":"02:01.595 ","End":"02:04.355","Text":"is any cell of the body,"},{"Start":"02:04.355 ","End":"02:07.295","Text":"except sperm and egg cells."},{"Start":"02:07.295 ","End":"02:12.365","Text":"Sperm and egg cells are gametes, the sex cells."},{"Start":"02:12.365 ","End":"02:16.165","Text":"These have one sets of chromosomes,"},{"Start":"02:16.165 ","End":"02:18.350","Text":"1 inherited from each parent."},{"Start":"02:18.350 ","End":"02:22.130","Text":"Mutations in somatic cells can affect the individual,"},{"Start":"02:22.130 ","End":"02:25.490","Text":"but they\u0027re not passed on to offspring,"},{"Start":"02:25.490 ","End":"02:30.920","Text":"while mutations in the gametes can pass on to the offspring."},{"Start":"02:30.920 ","End":"02:32.675","Text":"We mentioned this before."},{"Start":"02:32.675 ","End":"02:34.465","Text":"You have haploid and diploid,"},{"Start":"02:34.465 ","End":"02:38.045","Text":"1n or 2n copies of the chromosomes."},{"Start":"02:38.045 ","End":"02:41.090","Text":"In the sex cells,"},{"Start":"02:41.090 ","End":"02:43.474","Text":"you only have 1 copy of the chromosome."},{"Start":"02:43.474 ","End":"02:47.045","Text":"The sperm has 1 copy and the egg has 1 copy,"},{"Start":"02:47.045 ","End":"02:51.425","Text":"they\u0027re both haploid and when they come together into the gamete,"},{"Start":"02:51.425 ","End":"02:53.810","Text":"they will now have 2 copies of chromosomes,"},{"Start":"02:53.810 ","End":"02:56.955","Text":"1 from each parent."},{"Start":"02:56.955 ","End":"02:59.420","Text":"Somatic cells are diploid."},{"Start":"02:59.420 ","End":"03:02.765","Text":"Somatic cells are all the cells in the body that are not gamete,"},{"Start":"03:02.765 ","End":"03:04.850","Text":"that are not sex cells."},{"Start":"03:04.850 ","End":"03:07.395","Text":"Each parental gamete,"},{"Start":"03:07.395 ","End":"03:09.465","Text":"the sperm, or the egg,"},{"Start":"03:09.465 ","End":"03:11.370","Text":"each have 1 copy of a chromosome."},{"Start":"03:11.370 ","End":"03:13.534","Text":"They\u0027re each haploid and when they come together,"},{"Start":"03:13.534 ","End":"03:16.230","Text":"you get in the zygote,"},{"Start":"03:16.230 ","End":"03:18.360","Text":"the product of the 2 of them coming together,"},{"Start":"03:18.360 ","End":"03:23.890","Text":"2 sets of chromosomes and 1 from each parent, maternal and paternal."},{"Start":"03:23.890 ","End":"03:25.535","Text":"If we\u0027re looking here,"},{"Start":"03:25.535 ","End":"03:27.980","Text":"you have male and a female."},{"Start":"03:27.980 ","End":"03:30.200","Text":"They have 2 sets of chromosomes."},{"Start":"03:30.200 ","End":"03:32.690","Text":"Each one contributes 1 sex cell,"},{"Start":"03:32.690 ","End":"03:37.070","Text":"1 gamete, and that there is 1 set of chromosomes."},{"Start":"03:37.070 ","End":"03:41.180","Text":"These come together and form a zygote,"},{"Start":"03:41.180 ","End":"03:45.285","Text":"which now has 2 sets of chromosomes and this is the offspring\u0027s."},{"Start":"03:45.285 ","End":"03:48.620","Text":"Now the offspring will have a set of chromosomes of which"},{"Start":"03:48.620 ","End":"03:53.450","Text":"1 is mutated if you do have mutation,"},{"Start":"03:53.450 ","End":"03:55.250","Text":"and depending on the mutation,"},{"Start":"03:55.250 ","End":"03:57.860","Text":"this can be detrimental or even lethal."},{"Start":"03:57.860 ","End":"04:01.640","Text":"If you do have a mutation,"},{"Start":"04:01.640 ","End":"04:06.110","Text":"it can be lethal or harmful in the offspring."},{"Start":"04:06.110 ","End":"04:11.000","Text":"For example, this can result in a defective enzyme that is not able to catalyze"},{"Start":"04:11.000 ","End":"04:14.960","Text":"an essential metabolic reaction because it does not"},{"Start":"04:14.960 ","End":"04:19.700","Text":"fold correctly or it doesn\u0027t recognize its substrate or recognize as something else."},{"Start":"04:19.700 ","End":"04:26.660","Text":"P53 is an important protein that has been shown to be associated with cancer."},{"Start":"04:26.660 ","End":"04:29.080","Text":"When this is mutated,"},{"Start":"04:29.080 ","End":"04:33.925","Text":"its normal process of control of the cell division is damaged,"},{"Start":"04:33.925 ","End":"04:39.700","Text":"so that cells continuously divide and thus may result in cancer."},{"Start":"04:39.700 ","End":"04:42.040","Text":"When you have a normal p53,"},{"Start":"04:42.040 ","End":"04:47.995","Text":"what happens is it arrests the cell cycle when there is cellular damage and"},{"Start":"04:47.995 ","End":"04:55.015","Text":"the damages then repaired and only when it is repaired will the cell cycle continue."},{"Start":"04:55.015 ","End":"04:56.950","Text":"If you have cell cycle arrest,"},{"Start":"04:56.950 ","End":"04:59.170","Text":"DNA repair, the cell cycle restart."},{"Start":"04:59.170 ","End":"05:03.595","Text":"If the damage cannot be repaired, apoptosis occurs."},{"Start":"05:03.595 ","End":"05:05.410","Text":"The cell will die."},{"Start":"05:05.410 ","End":"05:07.090","Text":"That\u0027s when you have normal p53."},{"Start":"05:07.090 ","End":"05:09.025","Text":"When you have mutated p53,"},{"Start":"05:09.025 ","End":"05:11.545","Text":"DNA damaged cell cycle abnormalities."},{"Start":"05:11.545 ","End":"05:15.470","Text":"You have a cell cycle that continues"},{"Start":"05:15.470 ","End":"05:20.075","Text":"and therefore can become cancerous because it continues to divide."},{"Start":"05:20.075 ","End":"05:22.460","Text":"Now, occasionally, a mutation is beneficial"},{"Start":"05:22.460 ","End":"05:24.745","Text":"to the organism\u0027s survival and its environment."},{"Start":"05:24.745 ","End":"05:29.465","Text":"We\u0027ll illustrate the process by showing an example of the buff-tip moth."},{"Start":"05:29.465 ","End":"05:33.335","Text":"This moth is found throughout Europe and in Asia, through Siberia."},{"Start":"05:33.335 ","End":"05:39.615","Text":"It\u0027s forewings are great with large prominent buff patches."},{"Start":"05:39.615 ","End":"05:42.120","Text":"The thoracic hair is also buff."},{"Start":"05:42.120 ","End":"05:45.680","Text":"The moth resembles, if you see here,"},{"Start":"05:45.680 ","End":"05:48.665","Text":"a broken twig when at rest."},{"Start":"05:48.665 ","End":"05:54.620","Text":"This allows this moth to survive in its environment."},{"Start":"05:54.620 ","End":"05:58.550","Text":"A mutation may result in an enzyme with slightly different specificity,"},{"Start":"05:58.550 ","End":"06:04.685","Text":"allowing the cell to now metabolize a compound that the cell previously could not."},{"Start":"06:04.685 ","End":"06:09.170","Text":"Here you see that there\u0027s a mutation and it basically results in the fact that"},{"Start":"06:09.170 ","End":"06:13.400","Text":"now this can use galactose as a substrate,"},{"Start":"06:13.400 ","End":"06:15.485","Text":"whereas previously it used glucose."},{"Start":"06:15.485 ","End":"06:21.330","Text":"It basically now metabolizes the compound that the cell previously could not."},{"Start":"06:21.330 ","End":"06:25.070","Text":"If population of cells is then exposed to"},{"Start":"06:25.070 ","End":"06:31.550","Text":"an environment that is rich in that compound or is the sole source of fuel energy,"},{"Start":"06:31.550 ","End":"06:36.740","Text":"the mutant cell will have a selective advantage over the unmutated cells or organisms,"},{"Start":"06:36.740 ","End":"06:40.315","Text":"and then it will increase with time."},{"Start":"06:40.315 ","End":"06:43.952","Text":"If you have first-generation advantageous,"},{"Start":"06:43.952 ","End":"06:47.475","Text":"there\u0027s three of these mutants out of 10,"},{"Start":"06:47.475 ","End":"06:51.590","Text":"you then see they\u0027re advantageous of some more of them survive,"},{"Start":"06:51.590 ","End":"06:53.810","Text":"whereas here it\u0027s only 1-to-1."},{"Start":"06:53.810 ","End":"06:59.660","Text":"Now there\u0027s 6 versus 13 and it continues to increase."},{"Start":"06:59.660 ","End":"07:02.150","Text":"The mutant cell and its progeny would survive and"},{"Start":"07:02.150 ","End":"07:04.580","Text":"flourish in the new environment whereas the wild-type,"},{"Start":"07:04.580 ","End":"07:05.900","Text":"the unmutated cells,"},{"Start":"07:05.900 ","End":"07:09.845","Text":"would starve and be eradicated and become less and less,"},{"Start":"07:09.845 ","End":"07:11.240","Text":"they will die off."},{"Start":"07:11.240 ","End":"07:14.360","Text":"This is what Darwin defined as natural selection,"},{"Start":"07:14.360 ","End":"07:18.170","Text":"which is also known as survival of the fittest."},{"Start":"07:18.170 ","End":"07:24.410","Text":"Diving into this idea of a mutation conferring benefit to an organism leads us to"},{"Start":"07:24.410 ","End":"07:26.990","Text":"a key concept that was introduced by Darwin as"},{"Start":"07:26.990 ","End":"07:30.660","Text":"the driving force of evolution by natural selection."},{"Start":"07:30.660 ","End":"07:34.969","Text":"Individuals with characteristics would allow them to best compete for limited resources,"},{"Start":"07:34.969 ","End":"07:39.380","Text":"will survive and have more offspring than those with variations that are"},{"Start":"07:39.380 ","End":"07:44.705","Text":"less efficient with a reduced ability to compete."},{"Start":"07:44.705 ","End":"07:50.810","Text":"Again, you basically will see those that aren\u0027t as efficient will"},{"Start":"07:50.810 ","End":"07:56.570","Text":"not replicate as do the individuals with characteristics that are beneficial."},{"Start":"07:56.570 ","End":"08:01.295","Text":"These are going to be characteristics that provide an advantage in escaping predators."},{"Start":"08:01.295 ","End":"08:05.405","Text":"As an example mentioned previously of the moth that uses camouflage"},{"Start":"08:05.405 ","End":"08:10.040","Text":"or an advantage at obtaining food or tolerating physical conditions,"},{"Start":"08:10.040 ","End":"08:14.285","Text":"like extreme temperature or low oxygen levels, etc."},{"Start":"08:14.285 ","End":"08:18.410","Text":"These are called adaptive traits or adaptations."},{"Start":"08:18.410 ","End":"08:20.585","Text":"Going back to the buff-tip moth,"},{"Start":"08:20.585 ","End":"08:25.264","Text":"it has adapted so it is camouflaged in its environment."},{"Start":"08:25.264 ","End":"08:26.825","Text":"And as you see here,"},{"Start":"08:26.825 ","End":"08:29.950","Text":"these camouflage to their environment,"},{"Start":"08:29.950 ","End":"08:32.180","Text":"so they can evade predators."},{"Start":"08:32.180 ","End":"08:38.035","Text":"These adaptations, these beneficial traits, are inherited."},{"Start":"08:38.035 ","End":"08:41.620","Text":"Thus individuals with these characteristics will become more common"},{"Start":"08:41.620 ","End":"08:45.245","Text":"in the population over successive generations."},{"Start":"08:45.245 ","End":"08:47.950","Text":"Diving into this idea of mutation"},{"Start":"08:47.950 ","End":"08:52.540","Text":"conferring benefit to an organism leads us to the key concept again,"},{"Start":"08:52.540 ","End":"08:59.964","Text":"that Darwin introduced as a driving force of evolution, the natural selection."},{"Start":"08:59.964 ","End":"09:06.430","Text":"This results in a change in the genetic composition of the population over generations."},{"Start":"09:06.430 ","End":"09:09.460","Text":"Here we see an example of natural selection and"},{"Start":"09:09.460 ","End":"09:12.560","Text":"the resulting change in population as Darwin describes."},{"Start":"09:12.560 ","End":"09:14.859","Text":"You have a little illustration of Darwinian,"},{"Start":"09:14.859 ","End":"09:20.535","Text":"evolution and what you see here is that there are gray mice and white mice,"},{"Start":"09:20.535 ","End":"09:25.835","Text":"and white mice population is greater than dark mice population,"},{"Start":"09:25.835 ","End":"09:30.905","Text":"yet you have white mice that are more visible to the fox,"},{"Start":"09:30.905 ","End":"09:33.650","Text":"the predator, in this specific environment,"},{"Start":"09:33.650 ","End":"09:35.380","Text":"thus, white mice are eaten more."},{"Start":"09:35.380 ","End":"09:39.214","Text":"Some mice are eaten by the fox because white stand out more."},{"Start":"09:39.214 ","End":"09:41.270","Text":"It catches the white more easily."},{"Start":"09:41.270 ","End":"09:45.170","Text":"What happens is now some mice were eaten,"},{"Start":"09:45.170 ","End":"09:47.375","Text":"say here 2 of the white ones,"},{"Start":"09:47.375 ","End":"09:49.665","Text":"the surviving mice reproduce."},{"Start":"09:49.665 ","End":"09:55.610","Text":"So now these 3 gray ones have now turned into 6 gray ones and you now"},{"Start":"09:55.610 ","End":"10:02.070","Text":"have more of the gray than the white in this environment."},{"Start":"10:02.070 ","End":"10:05.090","Text":"You have more of the gray over generations."},{"Start":"10:05.090 ","End":"10:07.670","Text":"Occasionally, a second copy of the whole gene is"},{"Start":"10:07.670 ","End":"10:10.775","Text":"introduced into the chromosome as a result of defective replication."},{"Start":"10:10.775 ","End":"10:14.510","Text":"You have genome and DNA with a hexokinase gene."},{"Start":"10:14.510 ","End":"10:19.160","Text":"A rare mistake during DNA replication duplicates the hexokinase gene."},{"Start":"10:19.160 ","End":"10:21.590","Text":"Now you have a duplicate gene,"},{"Start":"10:21.590 ","End":"10:23.315","Text":"2 of the same gene."},{"Start":"10:23.315 ","End":"10:32.175","Text":"The second copy is superfluous and mutation in this gene may lead to the cell to evolve"},{"Start":"10:32.175 ","End":"10:36.630","Text":"by producing a new gene with a new function in"},{"Start":"10:36.630 ","End":"10:41.239","Text":"addition to the original genome function that are still present."},{"Start":"10:41.239 ","End":"10:42.395","Text":"If you look here,"},{"Start":"10:42.395 ","End":"10:43.880","Text":"you have the duplicate gene."},{"Start":"10:43.880 ","End":"10:48.830","Text":"The second rare mistake occurs is that there is a mutation."},{"Start":"10:48.830 ","End":"10:52.580","Text":"What happens is now you have the original gene that can"},{"Start":"10:52.580 ","End":"10:58.850","Text":"use glucose as its substrate and then you have the mutant hexokinase,"},{"Start":"10:58.850 ","End":"11:02.300","Text":"the gene that can use galactose as a substrate."},{"Start":"11:02.300 ","End":"11:07.220","Text":"This explains how DNA is used to assess historical evolution of modern organisms."},{"Start":"11:07.220 ","End":"11:09.890","Text":"DNA molecules are probably the most reliable source of"},{"Start":"11:09.890 ","End":"11:14.915","Text":"biological history we have and this can tell us,"},{"Start":"11:14.915 ","End":"11:17.540","Text":"if this is what happens,"},{"Start":"11:17.540 ","End":"11:20.900","Text":"this can now use galactose as a substrate."},{"Start":"11:20.900 ","End":"11:22.370","Text":"Looking at the genome, seeing that there\u0027s"},{"Start":"11:22.370 ","End":"11:26.150","Text":"a duplicate with a small mutation that leads to this,"},{"Start":"11:26.150 ","End":"11:28.490","Text":"we can know that there must have been"},{"Start":"11:28.490 ","End":"11:32.345","Text":"this rare mistake in the replication where there\u0027s duplication of a gene."},{"Start":"11:32.345 ","End":"11:33.740","Text":"This allows us, again,"},{"Start":"11:33.740 ","End":"11:39.875","Text":"with sequencing to backtrack into the origins, the common ancestors."},{"Start":"11:39.875 ","End":"11:42.890","Text":"If you look here, Darwin visioned"},{"Start":"11:42.890 ","End":"11:46.070","Text":"a branching pattern of evolution from a common ancestor."},{"Start":"11:46.070 ","End":"11:49.165","Text":"If you have common ancestor 1,"},{"Start":"11:49.165 ","End":"11:52.095","Text":"it splits into the twigs,"},{"Start":"11:52.095 ","End":"11:53.510","Text":"A, B, C, D,"},{"Start":"11:53.510 ","End":"11:58.565","Text":"representing living organisms and all the branches represent extinct groups."},{"Start":"11:58.565 ","End":"12:04.530","Text":"This is later what we see with the genotype tree,"},{"Start":"12:04.530 ","End":"12:06.390","Text":"with the sequencing tree."},{"Start":"12:06.390 ","End":"12:10.670","Text":"The frequency of errors in DNA replication represents a crucial balance between having"},{"Start":"12:10.670 ","End":"12:15.715","Text":"too many errors that result in nonviable progeny."},{"Start":"12:15.715 ","End":"12:19.080","Text":"In cell replication this is also known as daughter cells,"},{"Start":"12:19.080 ","End":"12:21.950","Text":"the offspring, and too few,"},{"Start":"12:21.950 ","End":"12:24.620","Text":"which would prevent the genetic variation that"},{"Start":"12:24.620 ","End":"12:27.920","Text":"allows survival through changing environments,"},{"Start":"12:27.920 ","End":"12:32.224","Text":"meaning the survival of mutant cells and new ecological niches."},{"Start":"12:32.224 ","End":"12:37.190","Text":"Several billions of years of natural selection have refined cellular systems to take"},{"Start":"12:37.190 ","End":"12:42.680","Text":"maximum advantage of the chemical and physical properties of available resources,"},{"Start":"12:42.680 ","End":"12:45.400","Text":"the raw materials in their environment."},{"Start":"12:45.400 ","End":"12:48.705","Text":"Chance genetic mutations in individuals of a population,"},{"Start":"12:48.705 ","End":"12:51.130","Text":"in the process of natural selection,"},{"Start":"12:51.130 ","End":"12:56.585","Text":"resulted in the evolution of the vast variety of species we have today."},{"Start":"12:56.585 ","End":"13:01.415","Text":"Each adapted to its particular ecological niche."},{"Start":"13:01.415 ","End":"13:05.285","Text":"There were these mutations random in"},{"Start":"13:05.285 ","End":"13:10.160","Text":"the genes and these resulted in natural selection because"},{"Start":"13:10.160 ","End":"13:14.840","Text":"individuals were somewhat different and it resulted in a variety of"},{"Start":"13:14.840 ","End":"13:21.160","Text":"species that each one is adapted to its particular ecological niche."},{"Start":"13:21.160 ","End":"13:24.500","Text":"With this, we covered the topic of changes in"},{"Start":"13:24.500 ","End":"13:27.130","Text":"hereditary information allowing evolution"},{"Start":"13:27.130 ","End":"13:29.810","Text":"and you should be able to explain the formation of a genetic mutation,"},{"Start":"13:29.810 ","End":"13:32.540","Text":"describe the role of mutations and evolution and understand the balance"},{"Start":"13:32.540 ","End":"13:35.725","Text":"between chance mutation and opportunity environment,"},{"Start":"13:35.725 ","End":"13:39.600","Text":"the concept of natural selection."}],"ID":27158},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 8","Duration":"1m 9s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26244,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:06.045","Text":"Hi there, welcome to exercises covering Biomolecules arose from Chemical Evolution."},{"Start":"00:06.045 ","End":"00:10.245","Text":"Part 1, describe the Big Bang theory."},{"Start":"00:10.245 ","End":"00:13.830","Text":"The big bang theory is a hypothesis that aims to explain how"},{"Start":"00:13.830 ","End":"00:19.275","Text":"the first living organism formed and acquired its characteristic organic building blocks."},{"Start":"00:19.275 ","End":"00:21.840","Text":"The idea is that these compounds are created by"},{"Start":"00:21.840 ","End":"00:24.705","Text":"the effects of powerful environmental forces."},{"Start":"00:24.705 ","End":"00:28.230","Text":"We gave the example of UV radiation, etc."},{"Start":"00:28.230 ","End":"00:32.840","Text":"Part 2, what are possible powerful environmental forces that"},{"Start":"00:32.840 ","End":"00:35.240","Text":"contributed to the formation of the compounds that"},{"Start":"00:35.240 ","End":"00:38.590","Text":"compose the first living organism based on The Big Bang Theory?"},{"Start":"00:38.590 ","End":"00:41.135","Text":"Forces such as ultraviolet irradiation,"},{"Start":"00:41.135 ","End":"00:43.970","Text":"lightning or volcanic eruptions that acted on"},{"Start":"00:43.970 ","End":"00:46.940","Text":"gases in the prebiotic Earth\u0027s atmosphere, as we said,"},{"Start":"00:46.940 ","End":"00:49.185","Text":"it\u0027s like the primordial atmosphere,"},{"Start":"00:49.185 ","End":"00:52.010","Text":"and on inorganic solutes and superheated thermal vents deep in"},{"Start":"00:52.010 ","End":"00:56.345","Text":"the ocean are believed to be forces that played a role in the Big Bang theory."},{"Start":"00:56.345 ","End":"01:00.635","Text":"The forces such as ultraviolet irradiation, lightning,"},{"Start":"01:00.635 ","End":"01:03.635","Text":"volcanic eruptions, as well as the possibility"},{"Start":"01:03.635 ","End":"01:07.730","Text":"of forming in superheated thermal vents deep in the ocean."},{"Start":"01:07.730 ","End":"01:10.410","Text":"Let\u0027s move on to the next exercise."}],"ID":27159},{"Watched":false,"Name":"Exercise 9","Duration":"1m 28s","ChapterTopicVideoID":26245,"CourseChapterTopicPlaylistID":253350,"HasSubtitles":true,"ThumbnailPath":null,"UploadDate":null,"DurationForVideoObject":null,"Description":null,"MetaTitle":null,"MetaDescription":null,"Canonical":null,"VideoComments":[],"Subtitles":[{"Start":"00:00.000 ","End":"00:02.430","Text":"We\u002